The Viking Age has grown increasingly popular and has had a huge impact on modern movie, television, and video game adaptations. However, when we strip away the makeup and the props, what did a Viking actually look at? What—if anything—does Hollywood get right?   Who Were the Vikings? A manuscript depiction of Danes landing from ships, from MS M.736 fol. 9v, 12th century. Source: The Morgan Library, New York.   Generally, the Viking Age is understood to have lasted between the 8th and the 11th centuries. “Viking” was the name given to the raiders from Scandinavia who plagued the nations around the North Sea and beyond. Technically, the term “Viking” refers to an occupation, rather than a culture: those going “Viking” were simply going raiding. However, the term has expanded to encapsulate not just the cultures around Scandinavia but also their colonies and raiding grounds in Britain, Ireland, the North Sea, and continental Europe.   The most notable raid on English soil was in 793 CE when a warband assaulted the monastery on Lindisfarne (“Holy Island”). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports the atrocities they committed as they stole the valuables from the church complex and took the monks as slaves. This proved to be a recurring theme: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recounts numerous raids on the English coast, culminating in the full-scale invasion of the Great Heathen Army in 865.   The Vikings also conquered land in Normandy, Ireland, and Scotland, and they traded and raided into Russia, the Byzantine Empire, and further into Asia. The central pillar of the Vikings’ success was their longboats. These clever crafts featured a sharp bow, with a wide, shallow midsection, allowing the sailors to traverse rivers and the bitter storms of the North Sea alike.   What we think of as the “Vikings” incorporated a diverse group of peasant farmers, fishermen, traders, warriors, and kings — much the same as other cultures in the Early Medieval Period. Thankfully, we have moved beyond the Victorian notion of barbaric, horn-wearing berserkers, but there was still much more to Viking life beyond the swashbuckling warriors of popular culture.   Viking Clothing An example of clothing worn by Viking men and women. Source: Norse-mythology.org   Cloth was expensive and time-intensive to produce in the Early Middle Ages, and, as such, most people would not have more than one or two sets of clothes. The choice of material of most individuals in Scandinavia and across Europe was wool and linen; generally, linen would be worn as an undergarment and wool on top for added warmth.   Archaeology and depictions from this period show that all classes of people loved to wear brightly colored clothing adorned with embroidered patterns and braids — bright blues, shades of green and yellow, and deep reds were all achievable with natural dyes like woad, nettle, and madder.   A Viking attire exhibit, displayed in the National Museum of Denmark. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The staple of Viking male clothing was the tunic. This was a loose-fitting garment that reached down to the knees and was secured at the waist with a belt and at the neck with a brooch. Artwork seems to show all classes and roles in society tended to wear this basic garment and wool was the perfect fabric of choice for the chilly, North Sea climate.   It seems likely that there was very little variation in this style across Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages — it may have been difficult to spot a Viking by his tunic alone! One of the few examples we have of a male Viking tunic is the shirt from Viborg, dated to the 11th century.   In contrast, Viking women’s costumes seem to have been more distinctive. In contrast to the ankle-length tunics of Anglo-Saxon women, Scandinavian women tended to wear “apron dresses.” These consisted of fabric wrapped around the torso with shoulder straps, secured with two brooches on the chest.   The Oseberg ship burial is one of the finest Viking burials ever found and was for a high-ranking woman — probably a queen or a priestess. Despite many grave goods being looted in antiquity, the body of the woman was wrapped in a fine red wool dress, adorned with silk decorative strips.   Viking Jewelry The Galloway Hoard, one of the finest assemblies of Viking jewelry. Source: National Museums Scotland.   One thing Hollywood gets right about the Vikings is their love of jewelry! In this period, jewelry served multiple purposes, illustrating status, religion, and wealth. Viking burials from Scandinavia and England have been found containing elaborate jewelry, which survives far more often than delicate leather and fabrics. Jewelry choices for men and women were different, but both sexes appeared to enjoy adorning their clothing and costumes with precious metals.   The infamous Thor’s hammer (Mjolnir) pendant appears across the Viking world and would have fulfilled a similar purpose as the Christian crucifix: for divine protection and cultural affiliation. These were spread across the Viking world and some were very impressive indeed, such as a notable silver and gold inlaid find from Norfolk.   For men, jewelry could also be a method of portable wealth. As they raided across different kingdoms with different coinage systems and monetary standards, it was often far more practical to melt down silver and gold goods into ingots. These could be smithed into finger or arm rings for convenience, offering easy payment when needed. We have finds of jewelry cut in half or hacked apart — probably a result of some price haggling at the market!   Viking Box Brooch, 700-900 CE. Source: The MET, New York   Jewelry was also a big part of women’s daily costume. Brooches were used to fasten the female apron dress, and many brooches have been found with suspension loops to hang things between them. This could take the form of beads or pendants but it was also practical; archaeology suggests this was also the place to hang keys and personal hygiene items like tweezers and ear spoons.   One example of a “set” of Viking female jewelry is a find from Frafjord, southwest Norway. This example includes oval, or tortoise, silver-plated brooches, two bracelets of bronze, an “equal-armed” brooch used to fasten the tunic, and a large, beaded necklace. This was clearly a rich burial, but the basic assemblage seems to be common across different social statuses.   Viking Hair and Makeup Viking comb, tweezers and earpick, showing the importance of personal hygiene to Vikings. Source: National Museum of Denmark.   The Vikings cared a lot about their hair. Combs are regularly found across Viking settlements, and they are often finely made of bone and antler and feature ornate decoration. In this way, grooming may have fulfilled a ritualistic purpose in Viking culture, rather than being just for hygiene. This occurs in some cultures to this day, with Sikhs maintaining long, uncut hair and beards (kesh), and carrying a kangha (comb) as part of the religious equipment as commanded by Guru Gobind Singh.   Stone carvings and metalwork offer rare glimpses into Viking hairstyles beyond grooming equipment. For women, this often involves braided hair or tied up into a bun, however, it is incredibly hard to discern with any real detail the hairstyles of men beyond short-to-mid-length hair and the existence of mustaches and goatees.   Christian sources generally portray long hair as a “pagan” characteristic; Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon monk, chastised King Æthelred of Northumbria for wearing his hair and beard in a way that “resembled the pagans.” The association was probably less religion-based and more to do with the growing popularity of Viking fashion in England.   Interestingly, various hair-coverings of fine materials like silk have been found in Viking settlements including York, Lincoln, and Dublin. This may suggest Viking women covered their hair, though this may also be a sign of their adoption of Christianity once they began living among the Christian Irish and Anglo-Saxons.   Figure of Viking women, with hair tied at the neck. Source: National Museum of Denmark   Popular media loves to depict Vikings as eyeshadow-wearing goths covered in tattoos, but how true is this? Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, a Jewish traveler to Hedeby (modern-day northern Germany and southern Denmark) from Islamic Spain notes how both men and women wore kohl—a cosmetic made of ground stibnite—to color their eyes.   This cosmetic was widely worn in the Islamic world by men and women, and it may well have been traded in Scandinavia. Unfortunately, the original source is lost, and only later copies remain, so we cannot say for sure how reliable this comment is. Similarly, we have no sources at all for either warpaint or tattoos; the technology was there but it is probably safer to say it was an individualistic fashion choice rather than a cultural norm.   Viking Weapons and Armor  Sword, axe head, arrows, lances, fighting knife, and shield bosses from chamber grave Bj.581: Birka, Sweden. Interestingly, these items accompanied a female skeleton, possibly a warrior. Source: Researchgate   Today, the Vikings are notorious for their raiding and warring. In turn, the long-shafted broad axe has become associated with their weapon of choice. Though finds from across the Viking world have shown they made use of and valued these intimidating weapons, there were far more options in their arsenal.   The first Viking raiders were opportunists, everyday people, who turned to theft and looting — possibly due to climate change in Scandinavia making farming less effective. These individuals would have used wood axes, knives, and hunting spears: anything they may have to hand. When attacking unarmed monks, simple tools were enough!   However, in the years that followed when the warbands began to form larger armies in an attempt to conquer lands, they began to use more professional equipment. For the rich Viking warrior, the sword would have been the preferred weapon, and there are some remarkable finds from across Britain and Scandinavia of beautifully crafted blades with inlaid gold and silver. These were weapons of the elite, and only accessible to the richest of Viking warriors.   The heavily armored, professional Viking soldier would likely have worn a chainmail coat and a nasal helm. This was the de facto military uniform of most soldiers in Western Europe in the Early Middle Ages, and we see a similar outfit still in use by the Normans and Anglo-Saxons in the Bayeux Tapestry, created at the end of the Viking Age.   To onlookers, both opposing armies would have been dressed and equipped very similarly, and it was only their opposing formations and the raising of banners that allowed soldiers to tell friend from foe. Rather than imagining “Viking” weapons and armor, it is better to consider the general equipment of the period.   Could You Spot a Viking? Illustration of a typical early medieval warrior, by Gerry Embleton, this basic set of equipment was popular across Western and Northern Europe and not limited to Vikings. Source: Osprey Publishing.   Whilst Hollywood has largely moved beyond portraying the Vikings as horned-helmeted barbarians, the popular concept of fur and leather-wearing, angry men in eyeshadow remains to this day. Instead, the costume of Scandinavian Vikings should be considered in the wider context of European fashion.   This is not to say Vikings were not identifiable. Their hairstyles and jewelry and some items of clothing, like the apron dresses, did set them apart from the surrounding Franks and Anglo-Saxons. Interestingly, it may have been far easier to identify a Scandinavian woman than a man, which may hint at women’s roles as carriers of cultural identity and heritage rather than men — quite a way away from the masculine and patriarchal imaginings of Vikings in pop culture!   The early Middle Ages were not a time of muddy, dirty peasants dressed in raggedy clothes, instead clothes were colorful and decorated, with individuals going great lengths to express themselves. In this sense, Vikings and the people of Scandinavia were like anyone in medieval Europe: they wore practical clothing, enjoyed jewelry and colorful clothes, but as with all cultural groups, had distinctive styles and cultural costume.   There was as much difference between a Dane and a Swede as there was between a Scandinavian and an Anglo-Saxon — perhaps it is time to move away from tropes about what a Viking looked like, and remember fashion was just as applicable then as it is now.

  In the 1950s, at the height of the Cold War, the Canadian government manipulated several Inuit families from northern Quebec (now Nunavik) with lies and false promises into moving to Ellesmere Island, a remote island in the North. The goal was to populate the Arctic and claim sovereignty over these austere lands against the interests of the Soviet Union. Decades after the end of the colonial expansion in North America, Indigenous families were once again being displaced, relocated, and outright lied to by their government. Today they are known as the High Arctic exiles. In 2010, the Canadian government issued an official apology to the families involved in the Inuit High Arctic Relocations, finally acknowledging one of the darkest chapters in Canada’s colonial history.   Canada During the Cold War Map of the Arctic. Source: The Arctic Institute   To understand the High Arctic Relocations, we need to understand the period in which they occurred. During the Cold War, Canada was a strategic ally of the United States against the Soviet-dominated Communist Eastern bloc. The country became a founding member and proud supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. Furthermore, the so-called Gouzenko Affair of 1946, which many historians consider the official beginning of the Cold War era, took place in Ottawa, on Canadian soil. As international relations between the two blocks soured and negotiations between East and West broke down, the United States and Canada turned their attention to the Arctic.   The history of Canadian Arctic Sovereignty dates to the 17th century, to the era of explorations and the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1880, Canada obtained ownership over this vastly inhospitable territory.   During the Cold War both blocks began building military bases in their own territories and those of their allies. Source: Reuters   Three decades later, in 1913 the Canadian government sponsored the Canadian Arctic Expedition, which departed from Victoria, British Columbia, bound for Alaska. Led by Canadian-born Vilhjalmur Stefansson, who supervised the Northern Party, and by R M. Anderson, head of the Southern Party, it was the most expensive expedition sponsored by Ottawa up to that time. It was also a way to assert sovereignty over the Arctic.   Dozens of Western Arctic (Inuvialuit), Alaskan (Iñupiat), and Copper Inuit (Inuinnait) joined the expedition as hunters, seamstresses, and guides. Over the next decade, between 1922 and 1927, several Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) outposts were established across what is now Nunavut. Once again, many constables, unfamiliar with this rugged territory, relied heavily on the Inuit for guidance.   Members of the Dominion Government Expedition raised the flag on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic, which was now claimed as part of the Dominion of Canada, August 11, 1904. Source: Science   It was in the years from 1947 to 1953, which historians call the Cold War’s “deep freeze,” that sovereignty claims became truly paramount. The threat of a potential Soviet attack over the Ocean turned the Arctic into the distant, icy front line of Cold War rivalries.   While the United States was busy building several military bases, including the Thule Air Base in northwestern Greenland in 1951, the Canadian government implemented the Canadian Rangers. The organization had been created during the Second World War following the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 to protect British Columbia and the North against the threat of Japanese attacks. Initially known as the “Pacific Coast Militia Rangers,” it was made up of local volunteers, fishermen, and trappers.   The Thule Air Base was established in 1951 on Inuit lands, photo by Jack Stephens. Source: Hakai Magazine   In 1947, in the aftermath of World War II, the Canadian Rangers evolved into the organization that still exists today, composed of Indigenous peoples from many First Nations, from Inuit to Métis, from Anishinaabeg to Cree and Dene. The Canadian Rangers were the first colonial organization to consistently employ Indigenous skills and knowledge to protect colonial Canada from Cold War threats.   The Inuit families involved in the High Arctic Relocations were drawn by the colonial government of Canada into a game larger than themselves, an international game that involved nations from around the world and pitted them against each other in an intricate web of strategic economic interests.   The Facts… Ellesmere Island. Source: NASA Visible Earth   Pawns. Human flagpoles. These are some of the terms used to describe the many Inuit families the Canadian government persuaded to relocate from their villages in northern Quebec (now Nunavik) to Ellesmere Island. Some families came from Inukjuak (also known as Port Harrison), a village on Hudson Bay in northern Quebec, others from Uugaqsiuvik, west of Inukjuak. Starting in July 1953, four of them were relocated to Resolute Bay and seven to Grise Fiord. Two years later, six more families moved to Resolute Bay and one to Grise Fiord. They were promised an abundance of game and fish, in what was advertised as a return to the traditional lifestyle of their ancestors. They were assured that they did not need to bring anything but food with them for a few days, because they would be provided with everything they needed.   Map of Ellesmere Island. Source: Nature   They were also guaranteed that the relocation would be temporary, and that, after an initial period of two years, they could return to northern Quebec if they so wished. What they weren’t told was that the families would be immediately separated into three groups and relocated to different settlements, Grise Fiord (known as Aujuittuq in Inuktitut) on Ellesmere Island and Resolute Bay on Cornwallis Island.   Much like the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913, the Inuit relocations represented a way for Canada to assert and solidify its presence in the North against any potential attacks by the Soviet Union as well as U.S. encroachment in the area. Although allies, tensions between Canada and its southern neighbour were high, with Ottawa repeatedly accusing Washington of making important decisions without first consulting the Canadian government.   …and the Consequences  Grise Fiord. Source: Morton’s Musings   Relocations took place throughout the 1950s, in 1953, 1955, and 1957. Larry Audlaluk (1953) told his story of being a High Arctic exile in Grise Fiord in his book What I Remember, What I Know: The Life of a High Arctic Exile (2020). His experience, though unique and deeply personal, gives us insight into the conditions the Inuit families in Ellesmere Island were forced to live in.   The relocation upended their lives. They endured extreme cold and the famous long Polar night, which most of them experienced for the first time in their lives. At Resolute Bay and Grise Fiord, summer lasts six weeks at most: from October to February there is virtually no daylight. Inuit exiles were forced to adjust to a completely different diet, learning to live with the threat of winter starvation.   Inuit community at Resolute Bay, photograph by Gar Lunney, 1956. Source: Inuit Art Quarterly   The clams, berries, eggs, and Canada geese they were accustomed to were non-existent in the Arctic. Their previously balanced diet was replaced by one based almost exclusively on sea mammals, such as walrus, seals, and whales. In Grise Fiord and Resolute Bay, ice formations typically last throughout the warmer months. Therefore, fishing is much harder than in northern Quebec.   Instead of making Inuit families more self-reliant, the harshness of Ellesmere Island made them increasingly dependent on the Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachment. It has also been reported that many Inuit huts had no heat and that the first substantial governmental services and schools were not established at Resolute and Grise Fiord until 1962. The only permanent medical facility was a R.C.A.F. nurse stationed at Resolute Bay.   Writer Larry Audlaluk with his mother Mary and father Isakallak in their tent on Lindstrom Peninsula in the winter of 1953-55. Source: Broadview Magazine   Community life was virtually non-existent. The sudden and abrupt change triggered by the move had a major impact on the physical and mental well-being of many Inuit families. Far from any major center and cut off from the world they had always known, away from friends and families, many suffered from depression and anxiety. Larry Audlaluk describes how, after the relocation, his father Isakallak Aqiatushuk had become “unusually quiet, as if he were deep in thought, almost deadly silent.”   Another important account of life in Resolute Bay comes from Inuit carver Simeonie Amagoalik, (1933-2011), who was born in an outpost camp near Inujjuaq but moved to Resolute when he was twenty in 1953. Decades later, the Canadian government commissioned him, along with Looty Pijamini, to create a monument to remember the High Arctic exiles.   Inuit Carver Simeonie Amagoalik with his son Paul, here pictured outside their summer tents in Resolute Bay, c. 1958. Source: Inuit Art Quarterly   His son Paul was born on the C.D. Howe, the ship that took his father to the High Arctic in 1953 and the same ship on which Larry Audlaluk traveled with his father. In 2012 he recalled what his parents told him about their lives before the relocation, that “they lived in a different world, that they lived in a sustainable world, that they could live on a happy life, but when they were asked to move up here, they were told they were going to be here for only two years with an option to stay if they want, but after two years they wanted to come back down to Inukjuak but they were downrightly refused to go back.” Instead, they were if they “could convince their other relatives to come instead which happened in 1955.”  From Nunavik to Ellesmere Island Map of the Nunangat, the Inuit homelands. Source: University of Waterloo   The snow-covered expanses, frozen waters and ice of the Canadian Arctic region are known to Inuit as Nunangat, which translates as “homeland” in Inuktitut. Nunangat comprises four Inuit land claim regions. One is Nunavut, which includes most of the Arctic Archipelago as well as all the islands in the Hudson, Ungava, and James bays. Nunatsiavut, in eastern Canada, stretches along the northern coast of Labrador, while the Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) occupies part of the Northwest Territories in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Finally, Nunavik (“great land” in the local dialect of Inuktitut) encompasses the northern third of the province of present-day Quebec, north of the 55th latitude, along Hudson Bay and the Ungava Peninsula. All the families involved in the High Arctic Relocations came from Nunavik, from the village of Inukjuak, known in the early 20th century as Port Harrison.   Grise Fiord (Aujuittuq in Inuktitut) is the northernmost community in Nunavut, photo by Scott Forsyth. Source: Hakai Magazine   Overall, the Nunangat encompasses nearly 35 percent of the Canadian mainland, as well as several major islands. Ellesmere Island, in Nunavut, is one of them. The contrasting living conditions between Inukjuak and the settlements on Ellesmere Island had a huge impact on the lives and mental health of High Arctic exiles. Inukjuak was a stronghold of Inuit culture and traditions and a crucial community site. Over the decades, it’s been home to many Inuit stone carvers and sculptors, such as Leah Nuvalinga Qumaluk (1934-2010), Charlie Inukpuk, and Isa Smiler (1921-1986), to name just a few.   Ellesmere Island today. Source: Norse Projects   Unlike Inukjuak, Grise Fiord and Resolute Bay were a colonial product. Resolute Bay, for example, had been established in 1947, less than a decade before the relocation, as a meteorological station. Today, the sons, daughters, grandsons, and granddaughters of the first High Arctic exiles still live on Ellesmere Island. For some of them, it is home. For others, it’s a bittersweet home, the most vivid symbol of lies and broken promises from a government that was supposed to represent them. Today the Inuit still living there call Resolute Bay Qausuittuq, which translates as “the place with no dawn,” while Grise Fiord is known as Ausuittuq, “the place that never thaws.”    Ottawa Finally Apologizes Inukjuak, where John Duncan, the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development under the Harper government, delivered the Apology for the Inuit High Arctic relocation in 2010. Source: Hypotheses   In the late 1970s, two families decided to leave Ellesmere Island and return to Inukjuak. They did so at their own expense. It was around this time that Inuit relocatees began to tell their stories of “human flagpoles,” stories that clashed deeply with the Government’s account of the relocations.   In 2008, Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated (NTI) chose Simeonie Amagoalik, a carver and community leader involved in the negotiations for the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, to build a statue to commemorate the relocations. Today, his parka-clad figure stands there, on the shores where Amagoalik first landed in 1953, looking south toward the Arctic Ocean, toward northern Quebec and Inukjuak. The statue’s companion at Grise Fiord was sculpted by Looty Pijamini and represents a mother and child embracing as they look south with an Inuit sled dog at their feet.   As Amy Prouty writes for Inuit Art Quarterly, the identical inscription on the plaques affixed to both statues “explicitly ties Arctic sovereignty to the actions of Inuit and their sacrifices, taking control of a historical narrative that has long been denied them.”   There is regret and resilience in these majestic and stoic figures that, along with the testimony of many relocatees and their descendants, have played an important role in the reconciliation process. Indeed, these statues are part of a long-standing work of speaking out and processing generational trauma. This process ultimately led to the establishment of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) in 1991, following the 1990 Kanesatake Resistance (Oka Crisis), and finally to the 2010 Apology for the Inuit High Arctic relocation. On August 18, less than two weeks after being appointed Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development under the Harper government, John Duncan traveled to Inukjuak.   The monument to the High Arctic Exiles in Resolute Bay. Source: APTN News   Here, he delivered an official apology on behalf of the Canadian government to the relocatees and their families. One month later he traveled to Ellesmere Island to attend the unveiling ceremony of Amagoalik’s and Pijamini’s statues at Resolute Bay and Grise Fiord and offered these two communities two framed copies of the Apology. “The Government of Canada,” John Duncan said in his speech, “deeply regrets the mistakes and broken promises of this dark chapter of our history and apologizes for the High Arctic relocation having taken place. We would like to pay tribute to the relocatees for their perseverance and courage. Despite the suffering and hardship, the relocatees and their descendants were successful in building vibrant communities in Grise Fiord and Resolute Bay.”

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