Dr. Clare Craig gave her testimony to the UK People’s Vaccine Inquiry.  She testified that the covid injections were both unsafe and ineffective.  Reviewing data from Pfizer’s trial, the ONS, ambulance callouts […]

by Harley Schlanger, LaRouche Organization: “The American people have a moral obligation to be involved in this [anti-war] process, and rather than acting like two-year olds in a sandbox, to realize that they have a voice in the critical issues of the day….The election should be a referendum on whether we’re going to plunge to […]

by Sean Adl-Tabatabai, The Peoples Voice: Marine Le Pen has vowed to dissolve the ‘New World Order’ in the wake of her historic victory against French President Emmanuel Macron in the recent European election. Following his crushing defeat, Macron declared on Sunday that he is dissolving parliament and calling for an immediate election in France. […]

from Judge Napolitano – Judging Freedom: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  Throughout history, warfare has been a catalyst for technological innovation. The ancient world’s arsenal was simple yet effective, comprising daggers, short swords, spears, and bows for close combat, and powerful siege engines like catapults, rams, and siege towers for breaching fortifications. In addition to these commonly used weapons, the ancient engineers would make ingenious and often unusual weapon designs that would not look out of place in the modern arsenal of war. These weapons were often created by some of history’s great geniuses and played a crucial role in turning the tide of battle. They varied in shape and size, from colossal warships to lethal flamethrowers or terrifying dragon-head rockets. While some of these ingenious weapons are lost to time or have become the stuff of legend, others have left a lasting legacy, showcasing the ancients’ remarkable ingenuity and creativity in the art of war.   1. Greek Fire Illustration of Greek fire against Thomas the Slav from the Codex Skylitzes Matritensis, 12th century, in the National Library of Madrid. Source: Royal Museums Greenwich, London   The so-called Greek fire, the Byzantine Empire’s legendary incendiary weapon, was developed in the 7th century and used with devastating effect in naval warfare. Often compared to modern napalm, Greek fire was reputedly invented by Callinicus, a Greek-speaking Jewish refugee from Syria, and first deployed during the Arab siege of Constantinople around 672 CE. This “liquid fire” was projected onto enemy ships using siphons — an early version of flamethrowers — igniting upon contact and proving nearly impossible to extinguish. Extremely difficult to extinguish, the weapon had a unique advantage — it could burn on water. In fact, it would ignite more intensely upon contact with water and stick to any surface it touched, making it an invaluable weapon for the Byzantine navy.   The exact composition of this substance remains a mystery to this day. Some speculate that Greek fire was likely a blend of petroleum, pitch, sulfur, resin from pine or cedar trees, lime, and bitumen. The formula was a closely guarded state secret, known only to a select few within the Byzantine court, including the emperor. Despite numerous attempts by rival powers to replicate it, the exact ingredients and method of deployment were never duplicated, preserving the Byzantine naval dominance for centuries.   2. The Claw Of Archimedes A digital reconstruction of the fearsome “Claw of Archimedes,” during the Siege of Syracuse. Source: Loic Derrien / Art Station   One of the most famous ancient innovations, the so-called Claw of Archimedes, came from the brilliant mind of mathematician, engineer, astronomer, and inventor Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287 BCE – ca. 212 BCE). This fearsome machine — a large mechanical arm equipped with a grappling hook (also known as an “iron hand”) — was mounted on the walls of Syracuse to defend against maritime invasions. The operators would lower the claw from the walls onto an enemy ship. Once ensnared, the ship would be lifted by the Claw and repeatedly dropped until it capsized.    According to Plutarch, these deadly machines played a significant role during the Second Punic War in 213 – 212 BCE. As the Romans besieged Syracuse, the defenders utilized massive catapults. In response, the Romans tethered their ships together and equipped them with towering ladders to scale the sea walls. This was the moment the Syracusans had anticipated, deploying the “Claw” to seize and overturn the invading vessels, throwing the Roman assault into disarray.   3. Archimedes’ Heat Ray Wall painting from the Uffizi Gallery, Stanzino delle Matematiche, in Florence, Italy, showing the Archimedes’ “Heat ray” mirror being used to burn Roman warships. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Another defensive mechanism employed by Syracuse’s defenders was Archimedes’ “Heat ray.” This device allegedly focused sunlight using an array of mirrors (polished shields or copper plates), creating intense heat to ignite Roman warships. However, it should be noted that none of the contemporary accounts of the Siege of Syracuse referenced such a weapon. Our primary source discussing this device is Anthemius of Tralles, who wrote centuries after the event. Roman ships did indeed burn during the siege, but only from incendiary projectiles thrown onto their decks.   MIT researchers conducted experiments to explore the practicality of the “Heat Ray,” managing to ignite a mock ship under specific conditions. These experiments yielded mixed results, suggesting that even if such a device existed, its effectiveness in actual combat would have been questionable.   4. The Steam Cannon Conceptual drawing of the ancient Steam Cannon. Source: MIT University, Cambridge Another fascinating weapon attributed to Archimedes was a steam-powered device known as the Architonnerre, capable of rapidly firing projectiles. This “steam cannon” would operate by heating a large metal tube until sufficiently hot, then injecting a small amount of water behind a projectile within the tube. The water would rapidly convert to steam, propelling the projectile with great force. The existence of this innovative weapon, however, is highly debated.    Inspired by Archimedes, famed Renaissance inventor and polymath Leonardo da Vinci, sketched his own version of a steam cannon, the Architronito. There have also been modern attempts to explore the practicality of a “steam cannon”, with varying degrees of success. Due to intense heat, the mixture would have likely exploded as soon as it was fired, never reaching its intended target.   5. Hellenistic Mammoth Ships Digital reconstruction of a giant tessarakonteres, compared with modern aircraft carrier. Source: blog.kakaocdn.net   The Hellenistic naval warfare can be described as “bigger is better.” The colossal vessels of the Hellenistic world, known as “polyremes,” were marvels of ancient naval engineering, with some, like the colossal tessarakonteres, purportedly measuring up to 420 feet (128 m) in length and carrying over 4,000 rowers. While these figures may be somewhat exaggerated, it is clear that these ships were significantly larger than the triremes of earlier times, which typically carried around 200 rowers. The shift from ramming tactics to siege weaponry, such as large catapults and ballistae, marked a significant evolution in naval combat strategies, and larger ships capable of carrying greater firepower became the norm.   The giant ships dominated the Mediterranean up to the end of the first century BCE. In fact, the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, saw the last recorded deployment of large warships. It also spelled the end of the Hellenistic era. Following Octavian’s triumph, the Roman navy became the sole master of the Mediterranean, and the large ships were relegated to the symbols of prestige and power, used by the wealthy and influential, such as emperor Caligula‘s large barges on the Nemi lake.    6. Chu-Ko-Nu: Ancient Chinese Crossbow Recreation of the ancient Chu-Ko-Nu, otherwise known as the Chinese repeating crossbow. Source: Mandarin Mansion Antiques, Haarlem   While the crossbow is commonly associated with European medieval warfare, the earliest evidence of crossbows originates from ancient China. Notably, the Chinese crossbow — the Chu-Ko-Nu — was a more advanced repeating crossbow, invented around the 4th century BCE. This innovative design was further improved by the famous military strategist Zhuge Liang (181 – 234 CE), whose version could fire up to three bolts simultaneously.    Although it was less accurate than single-shot crossbows and had a shorter range than longbows, the Chu-Ko-Nu boasted an impressive rate of fire for an ancient weapon. Trained soldiers could discharge up to ten steel bolts in just 15 seconds before needing to reload the magazine. No wonder the Cho-Ko-Nu remained in use at least until the late Qing dynasty, more than a thousand years after its inception.   7. Huo Long Chu Shui: Ancient Chinese Rocket The Huo Long Chu Shui, considered the predecessor of the modern missile launcher. Source: YLPMSAA Tang Siu Tong Secondary School, Hong Kong   The Huo Long Chu Shui, or “Fire Dragon Emerging from Water,” is another case of an advanced weapon from pre-modern times. This early example of a multistage rocket was used effectively during the Ming dynasty. Its purpose was twofold, to instill fear and cause destruction among enemy ranks. The weapon consisted of a hollow bamboo tube, decorated with a carved dragon head, which housed several gunpowder-propelled rockets. The rockets would ignite in sequence, first propelling the device itself and then launching smaller projectiles at the enemy, creating a barrage of fire from above.   One could only imagine the faces of the men confronted with this terrifying weapon, a fire-breathing dragon sending a flaming hailstorm of terror on the helpless soldiers below. The Huo Long Chu Shui could launch its fiery arrows over fortifications, causing chaos and damage upon impact. Its design was so advanced for its time that it continued to inspire fear and awe in adversaries, solidifying its place in the annals of military history as a testament to the ingenuity of ancient Chinese warfare.   8. Chinese Land Mines “Underground sky soaring thunder”, land mines connected to seemingly abandoned weapons above ground, from the Wubei Zhi, Chinese military treatise. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While the armies of medieval Europe were embroiled in the Crusades, the Chinese were taking a significant leap forward with the invention of a precursor to the modern land mines. Attributed to Lou Qianxia, these early mines were sophisticated and lethal weapons, utilizing various forms of gunpowder to blind, burn or poison. Initially, these devices were large bomb-like weapons that would be detonated en masse to kill and confuse the enemy, making him an easy target for an ambush. However, by the 13th century, the Chinese had developed more advanced land mines that could be triggered by the unsuspecting enemy’s footsteps.   The Chinese engineers continued to improve the lethal weapon, adding mechanical triggers akin to clockwork mechanisms. Concealed boards placed just beneath the earth surface would activate gears and weights when stepped on, striking flint to ignite the fuse. This innovation led to the creation of the “self-trespassing” mine, a direct ancestor of the modern land mine. Another deadly mine variant was the so-called “underground sky-soaring thunder,” a slow-burning flame in a bowl buried above a network of fuses, triggered by the disturbance of seemingly abandoned weapons or by unfortunate individuals who wanted to relieve themselves. 

  Picture an ancient state — let’s say around 1,700 years ago. Under its ruling dynasty, this state converted to Christianity, becoming one of the earliest places to do so. Its rulers, whether out of genuine religious conviction, political opportunism, or both, styled themselves as great defenders of the one true faith.   No, this isn’t the Roman Empire. It’s actually one of its contemporaries: The Kingdom of Aksum. This grand state, located in modern Eritrea and Ethiopia, made a name for itself as a major trading hub in late antiquity. Aksum’s religious conversion marks the beginning of the long history of Ethiopian Christianity. Today, the ancient kingdom may have long since crumbled, but its legacy, in the form of Ethiopian Christianity, is still alive and thriving.   Before the Dawn of Ethiopian Christianity in Aksum Map of the Kingdom of Aksum during the 6th century CE, superimposed on top of modern countries’ borders. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica   Archaeological evidence places the foundation of the Kingdom of Aksum at some time during the 1st century CE. At its height, the kingdom’s territory stretched from Ethiopia and Sudan in the west across the Red Sea to the Arabian Peninsula. Researchers believe that Aksum’s identity as a country was inseparable from its status as a trading hub. It had trading connections with all of the great Mediterranean and Middle Eastern powers of its day, including Rome, Egypt, and Arabia. Aksumite coins have been discovered across the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean.   Before the coming of Ethiopian Christianity, religion in Aksum resembled that of pre-Islamic Arabia. Ethiopians worshiped many gods, each with a different attribute or function. Even after the kings of Aksum instituted Christianity, some pre-Christian beliefs and rituals persisted. Later kings, however, would likely have denied any “pagan” influences in their culture.   Fourth Century Changes: The Arrival of Frumentius Ancient ruins in Tyre, Lebanon, the birthplace of Frumentius. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica   Tradition cites the 4th century CE as the beginning of Ethiopia’s Christian era. Everything is said to have started with the arrival of a merchant from the north — a man by the name of Frumentius. The narrative goes that Frumentius and his brother came from Tyre, in modern Lebanon. The brothers were on a boat in the Red Sea, when the ship unfortunately ran into trouble. Local pirates harassed the Phoenician travelers and took them captive. From there, they were enslaved, eventually making their way to the royal family of Aksum.   Even though they were slaves, Frumentius and his brother won the favor of Aksum’s king and queen with their knowledge. Frumentius became a more committed Christian in Ethiopia, advocating for Roman and Greek merchants in the country. He also obtained a valuable position at the Aksumite court. It was here that he would meet the crown prince, Ezana, becoming his teacher.   King Ezana’s Conversion King Ezana of Aksum, after converting to Christianity, Source: Austria-Forum   The future King Ezana of Aksum was young when his mother introduced him to Frumentius. Although still enslaved, Frumentius had considerable freedom to instruct Ezana on important topics. The Levantine merchant-missionary must have left a meaningful impact on the crown prince, given what was to come.   Sometime during the first half of the 4th century (possibly the 330s), Frumentius traveled north to Alexandria, Egypt. He met with the Coptic Church’s patriarch, Athanasius, with one request: that a bishop be appointed for Africa south of the Nile. Athanasius approved and made Frumentius himself Aksum’s head missionary. He was free to begin conversion efforts among the Aksumites.   Before Prince Ezana had reached legal maturity, his father died. His mother ruled in his place for the first several years of his kingship. When Ezana was old enough, he not only accepted the crown but also the Christian religion. Frumentius himself was allegedly the one who baptized the new Aksumite king. Ethiopian Christianity had dawned.   Later Developments: Aksum’s Expansion Aksumite coins featuring the image of King Kaleb I, early 6th century CE. Source: The British Museum   As the king who initiated the development of Ethiopian Christianity, Ezana is the best-known of Aksum’s rulers. But he wasn’t necessarily its most ambitious. That distinction could arguably go to Kaleb I, who reigned 200 years after Ezana. Under Kaleb’s rule, the Kingdom of Aksum reached its zenith, conquering new territories and strengthening its trading and religious networks.   Kaleb came to power around 514. He appreciated both Ethiopian and Greek culture and inscriptions in Greek have been found in Aksum’s ruins. He was also a contemporary of the Byzantine emperors Justin I and Justinian and Kaleb developed economic and diplomatic ties with them both. Aksum came to not only dominate the Red Sea region, but it made a name for itself as a global economic power.   Inscription in Arabian script detailing Kaleb’s campaign on the Arabian Peninsula. Source: Institute of Advanced Study   Aksum’s conquest of southern Arabia (modern Yemen) was the greatest achievement of Kaleb’s reign. Allegedly, an Arabian leader called Dhu Nuwas had converted to Judaism and went about persecuting local Christians. Given Aksum’s historical supremacy in the region, Kaleb could not let this stand. The king sent an army to Yemen, conquered the territory, and defeated Dhu Nuwas. Aksum’s direct domains now extended to the other side of the Red Sea.   How accurate is the narrative of an Arabian Jewish warlord persecuting Christians en masse? We really have no way of knowing the full answer. Perhaps it had a more symbolic meaning, representing the triumph of Christianity over other religious traditions. Regardless, the conquest of Yemen cemented Kaleb’s legacy as a great Christian king. The modern Ethiopian Orthodox Church recognizes him as a saint, as do Ethiopian Catholics.   The Decline of Aksum Aksumite ruins with several stelae still standing, Source: Heritage Daily   The Kingdom of Aksum stayed Christian for centuries after kings such as Ezana and Kaleb were gone. But its society started to decline around the 7th century. Archaeologists have not discovered any Aksumite coins from this time period, and the rulers of Aksum had long since stopped building monuments. Aksum’s territories would recede when Islamic armies conquered the Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom continued to trade, but it was losing control over its merchant networks.   It was not just the Muslim conquests or local invasions that contributed to the fall of Aksum. Scholars suspect climate change may have played a role, too. Without their access to the Red Sea, the Aksumites had to produce more of their own goods, including food. Agriculture and irregular periods of rainfall combined to degrade Ethiopia’s soil. By the middle of the 10th century, Aksum could not sustain itself any longer.   The Legacy of Aksum and Ethiopian Christianity Ethiopian triptych depicting Jesus, Mary, the Apostles, and Saint George, 18th or 19th century. Source: The New York Review   When a once-powerful society collapses, very rarely does everything it once upheld cease to exist. Sure, a country’s culture might undergo dramatic changes, but the past never entirely fades away. This was true of the Roman Empire, and it is equally true of the Kingdom of Aksum.   Ethiopian Christianity survived Aksum’s fall. If anything, it became even more vibrant. Historical and archaeological evidence from Ethiopia’s next dynasty, the Zagwe, is hard to come by. What little evidence is available, however, suggests continued Christian devotion and state patronage of the religion. The eleven rock-cut churches of Lalibela (Link to Lalibela Article 6476), for example, are a testament to early medieval Ethiopian Christianity and Aksumite architectural styles.   Ethiopian Orthodox priests in a procession, 2021. Source: Oxford Center for Mission Studies   The final dynasty to rule Ethiopia, the House of Solomon (1270-1974), went even further in upholding Orthodox Christianity. The Solomonic emperors crafted an intricate narrative linking their rule to both the Kingdom of Aksum and Biblical figures like King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. The emperor was seen as being divinely approved; it was his duty to protect and promote Ethiopian Christianity. A 14th-century epic, the Kebra Nagast, chronicles the imperial family’s legendary genealogy in great detail.   The old city of Aksum still exists, as well. It continues to occupy a central place in Ethiopian Orthodoxy, as it did over a thousand years ago. Many Ethiopians believe the sacred Ark of the Covenant rests in Aksum’s largest church, the Church of Our Lady, Mary of Zion. We have no way to verify this claim, but the legend testifies to Aksum’s importance as a spiritual center for Ethiopian Christianity.

  The cognitive abilities of Neanderthals, our extinct human relatives, has sparked ongoing scientific debate. Initial studies hinted at their cognitive inferiority compared to modern humans, but recent research challenges this view. This article explores the genetic, archaeological, and comparative approaches used by scientists to investigate Neanderthal cognitive abilities. By examining the latest research, including studies on Neanderthal DNA and archaeological discoveries, a nuanced perspective emerges, suggesting that Neanderthals were potentially cognitively sophisticated, and capable of advanced behaviors like symbolic thinking, complex language, and planning.   Origins of Neanderthals and Initial Discoveries A Bust of Neanderthal Man, by John Gurche, Source: Smithsonian Magazine   Neanderthals were a human species that lived in Europe and Asia from about 400,000 to 30,000 years ago. They differed physically from modern humans, having a stocky build, large nose, and prominent brows. They had large brains and were skilled hunters and toolmakers. They used fire and lived in complex social groups. There is also evidence of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans, with some present-day individuals inheriting Neanderthal DNA.   The discovery of the first Neanderthal skeleton led to a stereotype that still influences our perception today. Paleontologist Marcellin Boule classified them as primitive, and his 1911 recreation depicted Neanderthals as violent, hunched, hairy beings with protruding heads. This image has largely persisted, even though Boule based his reconstruction on fossil remains from the Chapelle-aux-Saints cave, where the skeleton was not only old but also had deformed bones, with spinal curvature and other issues. Today, many scientists are trying to break this stereotype.   Unraveling Cognitive Abilities Through Tool-Making and Hunting Neanderthal Stone Knives, photographs by Igor Djakovic, Source: The Guardian   One piece of evidence supporting the idea that Neanderthals had advanced cognitive abilities is that they could create complex tools and may have had hunting strategies. Their primary weapon was a spear with a stone tip. Stone cores that preserve the sequences Neanderthals used for stone knapping provide the most accurate representation of Neanderthal technology. Levallois, the most famous of these methods, has become synonymous with Neanderthal technology.   As one of the more intricate stone-processing techniques to learn, Levallois offers insight into the Neanderthal mind. Patterns of fracture and worn edges suggest that the stone was once attached to the ends of shafts and often broke during use. Even though the use and crafting of these tools speak to their complex cognitive abilities, Neanderthals appear less creative and innovative as they did not create new types of weapons and tools, even when in contact with modern humans with their more advanced tools.   There are multiple theories about Neanderthal hunting strategies, ranging from skilled hunters to scavengers. However, patterns of Neanderthal injuries provide evidence that they killed at close range. Hunting evidence was found at La Cotte, where Neanderthals captured, butchered, and transported mammoths. Neanderthals were dominant terrestrial hunters, focusing on a limited number of large mammals like mammoths. Nevertheless, they were adaptable, shifting attention to any large creatures the region offered. Their strategies relied on a fundamental understanding of the surrounding terrain, the ability to set traps and surprise their prey, and the courage to kill them up close with spears, as likely occurred at La Cotte. However, as skilled as they were, due to their concentration on only a few species, their hunts likely often failed, leaving them without food for days.   Hunting Clues: Neanderthal Injuries Unravel the Story The Remains of Shanidar I Skeleton, Source: World History Encyclopedia   Evidence of hunting is also visible on Neanderthal skeletons; wounds found on the head and upper body that have often healed resemble those wounds endured by rodeo competitors today. An example comes from the Shanidar Cave skeletons where one individual lacked a right forearm, displaying injuries and arthritis in the right leg, along with injuries on the left side of the face that may have led to blindness. Another skeleton had a rib injury, likely caused by a spear thrown by a modern human. Intriguingly, these individuals didn’t die from these injuries — they first lived for several years, and then later died after a few weeks, probably due to infection from the injury.   All this suggests that Neanderthals had close interactions with powerful, dangerous animals as well as modern humans. What is even more interesting is that this indicates Neanderthals cared for each other because such injuries could not be survived alone. Therefore, their social organization, empathy, and emotions were probably comparable to modern humans.   Neanderthal Healthcare: Survival and Compassion Yarrow plant in Spain, by Isidre Blanc, 2011, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Penny Spikins, professor of the archaeology of human origins at the University of York, explores the evolutionary significance of Neanderthal healthcare, suggesting that care played a crucial role in the survival and adaptation of Neanderthals in the harsh environments they inhabited. Healthcare practices aided Neanderthals in overcoming adversity, potentially being a key factor in their ability to coexist with early modern humans for thousands of years. It also suggests that healthcare practices among Neanderthals are an important part of the larger puzzle of human evolution, and understanding Neanderthal healthcare may provide new insights into the lives of these human ancestors.   One example, in addition to those mentioned from Shanidar, is the lower jaw from Bau de l’Aubesier in France, dating back over 180,000 years, showing dental disease and tooth loss in a Neanderthal. Chewing must have been extremely difficult and painful for this individual, yet they lived even after losing teeth, suggesting someone cared for them by preparing soft food.   While not much is known about Neanderthal medicine, evidence indicates successful healing of most injuries. There are traces of medicinal plants at El Sidron Cave in Spain, where compounds with anti-inflammatory properties from yarrow to chamomile-like plants were discovered between the teeth of a Neanderthal.   On the other hand, some scientists align more with the theory that Neanderthals were cold and calculating. Evidence for this includes instances where individuals with leg injuries, hindering their movement, were killed or left to die. In contrast, those with injuries to the head or neck, still capable of rapid movement, were spared. It is believed that they had to be cold and calculating to survive.   Did Neanderthals Bury Their Dead? Neanderthal Skull of “the old man,” buried at Saint Chapelle, by PLoS, 2004, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Penny Spakins argues in her research that empathy played a crucial role in the evolution of human cognition for Neanderthals; asserting that without it, they would not have been able to survive. She suggests that compassion and empathy were integral components of the social glue that held Neanderthal communities together, forming the basis for developing advanced cognitive abilities such as language, culture, and collaboration. Spakins also proposes that Neanderthals had a deep understanding of their environment and the animals living around them, serving as the foundation for their survival and well-being.   One of the main pieces of evidence Spakins uses, in addition to bones indicating healthcare, is the presence of Neanderthal graves, suggesting that Neanderthals had some form of social and emotional relationship with their deceased. As an example, she points to Las Palomas in southern Spain, where a small child and an adult woman, possibly their mother, were buried together and covered with stones. Spakins argues that there is a higher likelihood that children would be buried with specific grave materials, such as flint flakes on the grave of a newborn in the Ferasi cave, France, or a red deer maxilla at the burial site of a seven-month-old child in Amud, Israel. She also mentions goat horns surrounding the grave of a child in Teshik-Tashu, Uzbekistan, and the burial of a two-year-old Neanderthal with a triangular flint at the chest and a stone slab above the head, from the Dederiyeh cave in Syria.   Neanderthal Father and Daughter, by Tom Björklund, Source: Smithsonian Magazine   When it comes to Neanderthal burial practices, there are many unanswered questions. Scientists still aren’t certain whether Neanderthals intentionally buried their dead or simply left them in a place where their bodies were later naturally buried. Shapel, Krapina, and Ferasi are all places that have examples of “graves,” as Penny Spakins has mentioned, along with skeletons found beside the graves. Many scientists aren’t even sure if Neanderthal bodies were buried at all, as they were often shallowly placed underground, and parts of the skeletons are frequently missing, although it is possible that this happened because later animals found them and removed some skeletal parts from the ground. Some skeletons have been found in a state where they were merely laid down and positioned. In any case, it seems that even if Neanderthals had burial practices, they were infrequent and minimal.   Reassessing Neanderthal Empathy: Examining Aggression and Non-Empathetic Traits Reconstruction of the Saint-Cesaire skull, Source: Don’s Maps   In addition to these empathy-related pieces of evidence, there are also indications of interpersonal conflict and aggression among Neanderthals. For instance, the upper right part of the skull of a 36,000-year-old Neanderthal from Saint-Cesaire in France shows head trauma. The skull fracture had healed, and the injury seemed non-lethal. Computer tomography of the wound reveals that it was likely inflicted by a sharp object, a classic sign that the Neanderthal had been struck with a weapon on the skull.   Furthermore, there are numerous examples suggesting that Neanderthals exhibited cannibalistic tendencies. For instance, Neanderthal bodies were consumed in “mortuary sites” in L’Hortus, France, possibly long after their death. It is assumed they were eaten before being left in a small crevice. There are multiple theories about why Neanderthals engaged in this behavior. It could have been for sustenance, but it is also possible that it involved some form of ritual, or even revenge.   An instance where food is presumed to have been the motive was found in Moula-Guercy, France, where two adult Neanderthals, two teenagers, and two children between six and seven years old were dismembered and used for food 100,000 years ago. Facial muscles were cut, and skulls were cracked to extract the brain, with bones then discarded along with the remains of animal carcasses. The skeletons of a group of Neanderthals seemingly killed in a rockslide in El Sidron Cave, Spain, fifty thousand years later, were also scattered and broken in a manner resembling the preparation of animals for consumption. Nevertheless, it remains uncertain whether this was a common practice among Neanderthals, or a few isolated incidents that occurred during times of severe food shortages.   Neanderthal Memory: Working Memory and Spatial Cognition Shanidar Cave, Iraq, by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg), 2014, Source: Wikimedia Commons   When we discuss Neanderthal tool-making and hunting abilities, we should also turn our attention to their working memory. Scientists have hypothesized that the complexity of Neanderthal stone tools indicates advanced working memory. Additionally, they argue that the use of personal ornaments such as beads is another sign of highly developed working memory capacities. They have suggested that Neanderthals had a cognitive advantage over early modern humans in certain memory-related skills, such as spatial memory, which are crucial for hunting and navigation in their environment. For information about good hunting spots, the types of animals present, hiding places, cliffs, and ravines, as well as raw material reserves, they mainly relied on long-term memory. They knew how to memorize and track specific routes and they employed short-term planning, at least during hunting expeditions.   For example, at the Shanidar Cave site, evidence of flower and plant processing has been found, suggesting that Neanderthals could remember the locations of different plants, their seasonal availability, and the best way to process them. This kind of knowledge would require a complex working memory system. Similarly, the use of ornaments and other decorative items found in Krapina suggests that Neanderthals engaged in symbolic and ritual behavior requiring advanced cognitive abilities, including working memory.   Art and Symbolic Thinking Gorham’s Cave, by John Cummings, 2011, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Some interesting findings come from Hohle Fels in Germany, the La Roche-Cotard site in France, and Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar. The art found in these caves includes engravings and pigments, indicating a certain level of skill and planning. Scientists also note that some Neanderthal art is similar to that of early modern humans, suggesting that Neanderthal cognitive abilities were comparable to those of early modern humans.   There is evidence that colorful shells and teeth were used as ornaments, perhaps as necklaces or sewn into clothing. At Cueva de los Leones in southern Spain, pierced shells colored with vibrant red ochre were found. Additionally, colorful feathers were used, possibly to further adorn the body. Therefore, Neanderthals may have used color to enhance their surroundings and bodies.   La Roche-Cotard Mask, Source: UNESCO   One of the more well-known “artworks” by Neanderthals is the Roche-Cotard mask. Only a few centimeters long and created over 33,000 years ago, it depicts a carved face, perhaps that of a child. This mask shows us that Neanderthals had some form of creativity and the ability to remember faces. The purpose of the mask is unknown, perhaps it served as a toy.   Neanderthal Brains Neanderthal and Early Homo sapiens brain. Source: Keio Research Highlights   Anthropologist Robin Dunbar introduced the social brain hypothesis. In his work, it is proposed that the size of the neocortex, the part of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions, is linked to the size of social groups in primates. Dunbar suggests that as primates evolved, the size of their social groups increased. As a result, their brains also had to evolve to cope with the cognitive demands of maintaining these larger social networks. He argues that the same process applies to early humans and that the size of the human neocortex is linked to the size of prehistoric human social groups. As the Neanderthal neocortex is of a similar size to that of modern humans, it is suggested that Neanderthals were more similar to modern humans.   The question arises: How did Neanderthals transmit their knowledge, from hunting and tools to everyday life situations? Did they have language? The ability to imagine what others see and know is called the “Theory of Mind,” and it is assumed that Neanderthals had these abilities to a greater extent.   An interesting discovery comes from Oldeholtpade in the late Paleolithic in the Netherlands, where it was observed that Neanderthals produced finely crafted blades before teaching learners, most likely children, how to use cores. Learners would practice shaping flakes from cores. Numerous Neanderthal sites have also revealed the presence of these beginners. Most cores from Maastricht-Belvedere, Site K, are damaged by careless mistakes, and some even show repeated and senseless hammering on the edges of flint. It is believed that they were created by young Neanderthal children who might have been upset and expressed their frustration by hitting stones. Thus, we have a glimpse into how Neanderthals transmitted knowledge and how they learned to make tools even as children.   So What About Their Speech? Models relying on CT scans reveal the probable location of the Neanderthal hyoid bone (depicted in blue), Source: Sapiens   Regarding speech, none of the necessary anatomy — vocal cords, throat, tongue, lips, and so on — has been preserved. However, paleoanthropologists have made significant efforts to describe changes in bone structures supporting these speech organs, such as the hyoid bone. Nothing we know about Neanderthal anatomy would seriously constrain their speech abilities but given the differences between Neanderthal faces and ours, it is suspected that Neanderthal voices might have sounded somewhat different, and the range of consonants and vowels they could generate might have been different.   We are aware that Broca’s area, located in the lower left frontal lobe, is used by the modern brain to control speech and is larger compared to other primates. However, noting that the Broca’s area was likely larger in Neanderthals doesn’t necessarily mean they had the ability of speech.   Neanderthals possessed the FOXP2 gene, which we also have and which is implicated in the ability of speech. Nevertheless, it is still inconclusive whether Neanderthals had speech and language, but it is believed they probably had a range of sounds they used in some pattern.   Concluding Insights Neanderthal and child, photo by Wolfgang Sauber, 2013, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Scientific studies and research in the last few decades have surprised us with new insights into the cognitive abilities of Neanderthals. Once considered primitive and rough beings, it is now known that they were competent, with a more complex social organization, possibly even language, and the ability to use and develop tools. Their capabilities are evident through their use of ornaments, potential grave sites, and their genetic material.   Although there are still questions that scientists are working to resolve, it is clear that Neanderthals were capable and intelligent, able to adapt to their environment, and perhaps possessed a degree of empathy. In any case, Neanderthals have shown us that our ancestors were much more capable than previously thought, and that the heritage, culture, and evolution of the human species was much more intricate than previously assumed.

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