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The hunt for extrasolar planets has revealed some truly interesting candidates, not the least of which are planets known as “Hot Jupiters.” This refers to a particular class of gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter but which orbit very closely to their suns. Strangely, there are some gas giants out there that have very low densities, raising questions about their formation and evolution. This is certainly true of the Kepler 51 system, which contains no less than three “super puff” planets similar in size to Jupiter but is about one hundred times less dense. These planets also go by the moniker “cotton candy” giants because their density is comparable to this staple confection. In a recent study, an international team of astronomers spotted another massive planet, WASP-193b, a fluffy gas giant orbiting a Sun-like star 1,232 light-years away. While this planet is roughly one and a half times the size of Jupiter, it is only about 14% as massive. This makes WASP-193b the second-lightest exoplanet observed to date. Studying this and other “cotton candy” exoplanets could provide valuable insight into how these mysterious giants form. The research team consisted of astronomers from the Astrobiology Research Unit and the Space Sciences, Technologies, and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute at the Université de Liège, the Oukaimeden Observatory at Cadi Ayyad University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (IAA-CSIC), the European Southern Observatory (ESO), the Center for Space and Habitability at the University of Bern, the Center for Computational Astrophysics, the Cavendish Laboratory, and the British aerospace company Space Forge. The paper that describes their findings recently appeared in the journal Nature Astronomy. Artist’s impression of the Kepler 51 system. Credits: NASA/ESA/L. Hustak, J. Olmsted, D. Player and F. Summers (STScI) The new planet was initially spotted by the Wide Angle Search for Planets (WASP), an international collaboration that operates two observatories (SuperWASP-North and WASP-South) and searches for exoplanets using the Transit Method (aka. Transit Photometry). Between 2006 and 2008, and again in 2011/2012, the WASP-South observatory detected periodic dips in WASP-193’s brightness. These dips were consistent with an exoplanet with an orbital period of 6.25 days and provided estimates of the planet’s size. As Khalid Barkaoui, an MIT postdoctoral student and the study’s lead author, explained in an MIT News statement, “To find these giant objects with such a small density is really, really rare. There’s a class of planets called puffy Jupiters, and it’s been a mystery for 15 years now as to what they are. And this is an extreme case of that class… [WASP-193b] is so very light that it took four years to gather data and show that there is a mass signal, but it’s really, really tiny.” To obtain estimates of the planet’s mass and density, astronomers relied on high-resolution spectra (aka. the Radial Velocity Method) from ground-based telescopes. Unfortunately, these attempts failed to yield accurate information because the planet was far too light to have any detectable effect on its star. In the end, Barkaoui and his team’s analysis allowed them to constrain its mass, which allowed them to estimate its density at about 0.059 grams per cubic centimeter. This is a far cry from Jupiter, which has a density of about 1.33 grams per cubic centimeter. Said Francisco Pozuelos, a senior researcher at the Institute of Astrophysics of Andalucia and the co-lead author of the study: “We don’t know where to put this planet in all the formation theories we have right now, because it’s an outlier of all of them. We cannot explain how this planet was formed, based on classical evolution models. Looking more closely at its atmosphere will allow us to obtain an evolutionary path of this planet. We were initially getting extremely low densities, which were very difficult to believe in the beginning. We repeated the process of all the data analysis several times to make sure this was the real density of the planet because this was super rare.” Artist’s impression of the hot Jupiter exoplanet WASP-69b, which orbits its star so closely that its atmosphere is being blown into space. Credit: Adam Makarenko/W. M. Keck Observatory The researchers suspect that WASP-193b is composed mostly of hydrogen and helium, like all gas giants, and that these form a hugely inflated atmosphere that extends tens of thousands of kilometers farther than Jupiter’s atmosphere. These findings cannot be explained by conventional theories of planet formation and evolution, which makes WASP-193b an ideal candidate for follow-up observations. In the near future, the team hopes to conduct follow-up studies using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and a technique developed by MIT assistant professor Julien de Wit. This technique allows astronomers to measure the temperature, composition, and pressure of an exoplanet’s atmosphere to various depths, which can be used to precisely determine the planet’s mass. “The bigger a planet’s atmosphere, the more light can go through,” de Wit says. “So it’s clear that this planet is one of the best targets we have for studying atmospheric effects. It will be a Rosetta Stone to try and resolve the mystery of puffy Jupiters.” Further Reading: MIT, Nature Astronomy The post Astronomers Discover the Second-Lightest “Cotton Candy” Exoplanet to Date. appeared first on Universe Today.

The giant outer planets haven’t always been in their current position. Uranus and Neptune for example are thought to have wandered through the outer Solar System to their current orbital position. On the way, they accumulated icy, comet-like objects. A new piece of research suggests as many as three kilomerer-sized objects crashed into them every hour increasing their mass. Not only would it increase the mass but it would enrich their atmospheres. Uranus and Neptune are the two outermost planets in our Solar System. They differ from Jupiter and Saturn and share a number of characteristics based upon their composition. Atmospheres rich in ammonia and methane ice and also volumes of water distinguish them from the the other gas giants. Both have a distinctive blue hue to them, due to their composition  but Uranus is unique for its extreme axial tilt of 98 degrees. Observed from afar, it seems to orbit the Sun on its side. Neptune has wind speeds in excess of almost 2,000 kilometres.  Image of Uranus from Webb Observe the Solar System today and it seems a largely calm place but the Nice model (named after the location of the Cote d’Azure Observatory in Nice, France where it was developed) suggests the giant planets migrated from an initial location into their present position, long after the protoplanetary disk had dissipated. The idea became popular when it became clear that very long periods of time were required for Uranus and Neptune to form in their current location.  In observations taken on 7 September 2021, researchers found that Neptune’s dark spot, which recently was found to have reversed course from moving toward the equator, is still visible in this image, along with a darkened northern hemisphere. There is also a notable dark, elongated circle encompassing Neptune’s south pole. The blue colour of both Neptune and Uranus is a result of the absorption of red light by the planets’ methane-rich atmospheres. The model proposes that all the gas giants; Jupiter through to Neptune began their lives between 5 and 20 astronomical units from the Sun (one astronomical unit is equivalent to the average distance between Sun and Earth.) By comparison, Neptune is now at 30 astronomical units from Sun but some sort of catastrophic, chaotic event caused the planets to migrate out to their current positions.  The simulations run by the team from the University of California suggests that it’s even possible that Neptune started out closer to the Sun than Uranus. The higher mass of Neptune seems to suggest this may be the case. Running through the simulations, the team estimate the amount of accretion on the planetesimals as they migrated out.  The team announce that the ice giants seem to undergo bombardment from icy materials at an astonishing rate. The simulations showed that the extreme bombardment could have lasted for up to a million years with accretion rates of up to 3 planetesimals with a 1km radius every hour! This rate however seems to vary whether it is Uranus or Neptune and whether they switch position. In the simulations where Uranus is furthest from the Sun, both accrete at the same position, at between 22 and 26 astronomical units. Where Uranus is nearer to the Sun Neptune seems to offer some sort of shield and accretes the majority of planetesimals.  It seems for now, the exact rates of accretion are still yet to be determined but we do know that the Solar System is far from peaceful and stable. Over many millions of years, the landscape of the Solar System has changed. It is fair to say that it will change again as the Sun ages but thankfully we are a few billion years off this yet.  Source : Extensive Pollution of Uranus and Neptune’s Atmospheres by Upsweep of Icy Material During the Nice Model Migration The post When Uranus and Neptune Migrated, Three Icy Objects Were Crashing Into Them Every Hour! appeared first on Universe Today.

"Tens of people line the streets..."

Since Duff Goldman met Johnna in 2016, he seems to have completely changed. Here's how the "Ace of Cakes" has transformed both physically and emotionally.