West Virginia is right to not promote foreign immigration to solve state's 'dilemmas' Paul Kiernan has an article in the Wall Street Journal about West Virginia. Why is the state against mass immigration? Well, we know the WSJ has long championed mass immigration, and this piece gives us an idea of how mass immigration boosters think and the arguments they make. The title of the article is, “Desperate for Workers but Dead Set Against Migrant Labor: The West Virginia Dilemma.” The original article is here but you can read the whole thing for free here. Here’s how Kiernan explains West Virginia’s so-called “dilemma”:Save 40% on our limited edition Brain Force Ultra that’s loaded with proprietary super ingredients! West Virginia shares a demographic dilemma afflicting many parts of the country: an aging population and unfilled jobs. Decades of migration out of Appalachia have left West Virginia older, less educated and less able to work than other parts of the U.S. Its labor-force participation rate—the share of the 16-and-older population either working or looking for work—was 55.2% in March, the second-lowest in the country. Some other states, including Maine, Indiana and Utah, have sought immigrants to shore up their workforces. But while West Virginia represents one extreme in its labor needs, it represents another in its resistance to immigration. Why is the solution always mass immigration? Why doesn’t the article suggest other solutions, such as investment, education or vocational training to keep young West Virginians in the state, rather than bringing in foreigners? An aging population is not the end of the world, especially with new technology. Japan, for example, develops robots to help care for the elderly. The article says only 55.2% of the state’s population is working or looking for work. How about mobilizing part of the other 45% and encouraging them to work? The WSJ is puzzled that West Virginia is fighting illegal immigration: “Sanctuary cities” have been banned in the state. The state’s National Guard has been deployed to the Texas-Mexico border. Bills in the legislature have been introduced to make businesses screen potential workers to make sure they’re legal, to “punish companies for transporting migrants who are deportable under U.S. law,” to give the state authority to remove “inspected unauthorized aliens” (who entered illegally but the federal government allows to work) and to give Texas money for fencing on its border with Mexico. Moore Capito, running for governor, ran a TV ad in which “he blocks a van of migrants from entering the state.” The WSJ’s response? There is little evidence that many recent immigrants—either those who entered the country legally or those who didn’t—have had any inclination to go to West Virginia, the only state with fewer residents than it had in 1940. The portion of its population that is foreign-born is 1.8%, the lowest of any state. Don’t worry, the state has a cheap labor lobby wanting to change that. Steve Roberts, president of the West Virginia Chamber of Commerce, says that “We should avoid sending messages, either overtly or through our actions, that this is not a good place to come if you’re willing to work.” Roberts says manual laborers are needed to “do the work that some of us have just gotten too old to do.” So work to keep young people in the state! Local historians said the state has long been wary of outsiders, not just from other countries but from other states. “West Virginians don’t want immigration—of any kind,” said Stephen Smoot, editor of the Pendleton Times newspaper. There is even antipathy toward “come-heres” from nearby metropolitan areas who move in and look down their noses at locals, Smoot said. Well, what do you expect? “There’s a quality of life that comes from living in a sparsely populated area,” said Smoot. “You don’t have the irritations of constant human contact.” Yes, some people like to live in sparsely-populated areas. They don’t want urban sprawl everywhere. The state of West Virginia is famous for its scenery and outdoor recreational activities, which are also sources of income. West Virginia is right to not promote foreign immigration into the state. Instead, they can work on solving the state’s problems with the currently-existing population. Israeli Plan to Force All Gazan Survivors Onto US Ships Exposed

City's new policy is aimed at ensuring the “neutrality” of public office Poland’s capital has instructed civil servants not to display crucifixes and other religious symbols at Warsaw City Hall, sparking backlash from conservative groups.  According to the Gazeta Wyborcza newspaper, officials will not be permitted to hang crosses or crucifixes on the walls or keep them on their desks. Government employees will still be allowed to wear crosses while at work, however.  The new rules are part of a broader set of regulations aimed at combating various forms of discrimination. Officials have been instructed to use gender-neutral language, address people by their preferred pronouns, and not discriminate against same-sex couples. “Warsaw is the first city in Poland to adopt such a document,” City Hall spokeswoman Monika Beuth said. Some politicians and religious groups have argued that such regulations are inappropriate in a predominantly Catholic country. “I think this decision is unnecessary,” said Szymon Holownia, the speaker of the Polish parliament. “I have found a large number of crosses on the walls of the Sejm. While I personally will not hang crosses in public offices, I don’t think that today in Poland we need a war on whether crosses should be taken down from walls.” Save 40% on our limited edition Brain Force Ultra that’s loaded with proprietary super ingredients! Conservative member of parliament Sebastian Kaleta promised to ask the prosecutor’s office to check if the capital’s policies violate any laws, while Catholic activist group Ordo Iuris urged people to send complaints to the city hall. Warsaw Mayor Rafal Trzaskowski defended the new rules and blasted “the hype in the media.” He explained that the guidelines were put in place to ensure an inclusive environment and uphold Poland’s secularism. “Everyone has the right to their faith, or the lack thereof. This includes civil servants and clerks. [But] anyone who comes to the office to handle their business has the right to feel that he or she is in a neutral office. As simply as that,” the mayor wrote on X (formerly Twitter) on Thursday. “No one intends to wage a battle against any religion in Warsaw.”  Speaking at a news conference, Trzaskowski said the regulations would not apply to hospitals, schools and social welfare centers. He further clarified that although the guidelines bar religious ceremonies from taking place in government buildings, they will not apply to “traditional historical celebrations,” such as the commemoration of the 1944 uprising of Warsaw citizens against the Nazi occupation during World War II. Israeli Plan to Force All Gazan Survivors Onto US Ships Exposed

Some US defense contractors are reportedly already there, repairing weapons provided to Kiev Several US allies within NATO are “inching closer” to sending soldiers into Ukraine to train its armed forces, the New York Times has reported. Some American military contractors are already on the ground to repair US-supplied weapons systems. Facing troop shortages, the government in Kiev has asked the US and NATO to “help train 150,000 new recruits” inside Ukraine, so they could be sent to the front faster, according to the American outlet. The move “would be another blurring of a previous red line” and could draw the US and the EU “more directly into the war,” the Times noted. Although the White House has publicly opposed sending instructors, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff thinks it is inevitable. “We’ll get there eventually, over time,” General Charles Q. Brown Jr. told reporters on Thursday, while traveling to Brussels. One problem with deploying NATO instructors to Ukraine would be having to shift already scarce air defenses away from the battlefield in order to protect them from Russian air and missile strikes, the Times noted. According to the outlet, the US would be obligated to defend any NATO instructors inside Ukraine from attack, “potentially dragging America into the war.”Save 10% on ALL storable food and Alexapure Pro Water Filtration Systems! Secure your independence with our delicious kits TODAY to beat the coming demand! French President Emmanuel Macron first raised the issue of sending NATO troops to Ukraine back in February, as an idea that should not be ruled out. Estonia and Lithuania have since expressed support for either sending instructors or support troops, to free up Ukrainian soldiers for combat duty.  The White House is “adamant” that it will not put American troops on the ground in Ukraine – including instructors – and has urged NATO allies not to do it either, an anonymous White House official told the Times. Meanwhile, Britain, France and Germany are working on a plan to send contractors to maintain weapons in the combat zone, the US outlet has revealed. Though the US has banned defense contractors from going to Ukraine, “a small number have already been allowed in, under State Department authority, to work on specific weapons systems like Patriot air defenses,” the Times noted. American instructors used to be part of a NATO training program in Yavorov, in western Ukraine, but were withdrawn in early 2022. Russia has since struck the facility with missiles multiple times. NATO has trained tens of thousands of Ukrainian troops in Germany, Poland, the UK and elsewhere. Western tactics have proven less than adequate during the summer 2023 offensive, however. The Times has described the Ukrainian battlefield as “far different and more intense than what American forces have fought on in recent years.” According to anonymous US military officials, training inside Ukraine would allow American instructors “to more quickly gather information about the innovations occurring on the Ukrainian front lines, potentially allowing them to adapt their training.” Earlier this week, British Defense Secretary Grant Shapps said that “moving training closer” to Ukraine would make sense, but added that London did not want to put British troops on the ground. Israeli Plan to Force All Gazan Survivors Onto US Ships Exposed

by Leo Hohmann, Leo Hohmann: The FBI and Homeland Security have issued an alert warning that Gay Pride events scheduled for cities throughout the U.S. during June “Pride Month” may be targeted by ISIS and other Islamic terrorist organizations. Of course, our woke federal law-enforcement agencies never utter the word Islamic, Islamic State, or Muslim. Here’s what […]

  The Roman emperors are some of the most fascinating historical figures. They held multiple roles: army commanders, religious heads, lawmakers, and builders. These emperors steered the Roman Empire’s destiny, fortifying its frontiers, establishing and upholding numerous urban centers, assigning officials, instituting reforms, conducting sacred ceremonies, and leading troops against foreign and domestic foes. Figures like Augustus, the first emperor, ushered in a golden age. In contrast, rulers such as soldier-usurper Maximinus Thrax tipped the Empire into turmoil. Some emperors ruled for mere months, while others sat on the throne for decades, founding powerful dynasties. Yet, all of them, whether benevolent leaders, tyrants, or ruthless military men, tried their best to govern the vast Empire. Changing the state’s structure and direction, reshaping history itself. Here are the most important Roman Emperors.    1. Augustus: First Roman Emperor Detail from the larger-than-life statue of Augustus of Prima Porta, early 1st century CE. Source: Musei Vaticani, Rome   Julius Caesar was the first Roman leader to (briefly) hold near-absolute power, but it was his adopted son, Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, Augustus. Throughout his four-decades-long reign (27 BCE –14 CE), Augustus laid the foundation for the Roman Empire. He inaugurated the first imperial dynasty, heralding an era of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana.   Wielding his extensive powers, Augustus enacted a series of reforms, expanded Roman territories, and fortified the borders. As a patron of the arts and literature, he commissioned numerous public buildings, monuments, and sculptures across Rome and its provinces. Augustus also expanded Rome’s horizons to the East by annexing Egypt and initiating the lucrative Indian Ocean trade, which inundated Rome with exotic luxuries.   While having absolute power and sole command over the Roman army, Augustus trod carefully, mindful of Caesar’s fate. He cleverly presented himself as the “princeps” or the “first citizen,” heralding the era of the early Empire or the Principate. By founding the first imperial dynasty, Augustus secured a peaceful power transfer, ensuring the Roman Empire could flourish for centuries.   2. Tiberius: The Reluctant Leader Bust of Emperor Tiberius, ca. 13. Source: The Louvre, Paris   Tiberius ascended the throne as the second Roman emperor. Leading Rome for over two decades 14 CE – 37 CE), Tiberius did his best to uphold Augustus’ legacy. As a seasoned general, Tiberius was instrumental in establishing Rome’s northern borders. Despite his initial reluctance to take the purple, possibly feeling unworthy to be Augustus’ heir, Tiberius emerged as a meticulous administrator, enhancing the Empire’s strength and prosperity.   Nevertheless, Tiberius harbored a deep mistrust for the Senate, fearing conspiracies. His discomfort grew into paranoia, prompting his retreat to Capri in 26 CE. This seclusion fueled rumors of debauchery and tyranny, though these accounts are often considered exaggerated by contemporary scholars. Tiberius’ absence from Rome indeed left a void, leading to political machinations and corruption.   Tiberius left Rome in the hands of powerful Praetorian prefect Sejanus, a grey eminence behind the throne. While Tiberius was blamed for the sudden death of his heir and adopted son, the popular general Germanicus, the main culprit was probably Sejanus, who harbored imperial ambitions. However, Sejanus, too, fell as a plot victim, and following Tiberius’ death, the throne came to Germanicus’ only surviving son, Caligula.   3. Caligula: The Misunderstood Autocrat Copper alloy coin of emperor Caligula, with reverse depicting the emperor addressing the soldiers, 40-41 CE. Source: The British Museum   Emperor Caligula’s four-year reign (37 – 41 CE) is undoubtedly one of the most controversial periods in Roman history. When he ascended the throne, Gaius Caesar was everything his predecessor was not: young, charismatic, and widely popular. Initially, he maintained good relations with the Senate, reduced taxes, held public games, and pardoned exiles. However, after a brief illness, Caligula’s reign took a darker turn. Caligula became a paranoid, vengeful ruler who engaged in open war with the Senate.    While ancient sources depict a reign characterized by unbridled cruelty and madness, contemporary scholars question the reliability of those lurid tales, suggesting that some of those accounts may have been exaggerated or fabricated by his political enemies. Stories like declaring emperor’s favorite horse Incitatus a consul might be a symbolic mockery of the senators rather than a literal appointment, and Caligula’s war against the sea might have merely been a prelude to an abortive conquest of Britain.    However, Caligula’s obsession with the Hellenistic East culminated in his self-proclamation as a deity and a plan to relocate the capital to Alexandria. This escalation in autocratic behavior alarmed the Senate, leading to Caligula’s assassination at the hands of his Praetorian Guard. Instead of restoring the Republic, the Senate had to accept Caligula’s uncle – Claudius – as a new emperor.   4. Claudius: The Unexpected Hero Bust of Claudius, c. 41-54 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Emperor Claudius (41 – 54 CE) often takes a backseat to his more controversial predecessor and successor. Yet, Claudius, despite his lack of experience and physical disability, proved to be a capable ruler. He oversaw the conquest of Britain, refilled the imperial coffers depleted by his predecessor, and built roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire.     Claudius also tackled social and economic issues. He expanded the port of Ostia to alleviate grain shortages in Rome and reformed the grain dole system, ensuring the provision of wheat to Roman citizens at subsidized rates. Having a personal interest in law, Claudius presided at public trials and issued a myriad of edicts. However, his efforts to combat corruption incited the ire of the nobility, particularly the senators with vested interests in the status quo.   To shore his position, Claudius resorted to extreme measures, killing or exiling several senators, an act earning him the hostility of the ancient writers, many of them members of the Senate. In addition, the emperor’s reign was marred by personal issues, including his marriage to manipulative Messalina and his ambitious niece, Agrippina the Younger. The circumstances surrounding Claudius’ death in 54 CE suggest a possible poisoning, likely orchestrated by Agrippina to ensure the succession of her son, Nero.   5. Nero: The Artist and Antichrist Coin showing bust of Nero on the left, Nero laureate playing a lyre on the right, 62 CE. Source: The British Museum   Nero (54 – 68 CE) remains one of the most controversial Roman emperors. His reign began auspiciously with tax cuts, public games, and patronage of arts. However, Nero’s youth and inexperience were exploited by his ambitious mother, Agrippina the Younger. The harmonious mother–son joint rulership did not last long and became increasingly strained as Agrippina opposed Nero’s affair with Poppaea Sabina. Perhaps at Poppaea’s instigation, Nero decided to eliminate his mother, which he did after several unsuccessful attempts in 59 CE.    If matricide was not enough, Nero’s relationship with the Senate was further strained by the death of Empress Poppaea, rumored to be caused by Nero himself, and the emperor’s personal involvement in artistic pursuits and public competitions, deemed unbecoming for the ruler. While the senators despised the emperor, the people adored Nero, considering him their champion.    However, the Great Fire of Rome of 64 AD was a turning point. Although Nero was unjustly blamed for the fire, the speedy construction of his lavish palace – the Domus Aurea – on the city’s smoldering ruins undermined the emperor’s power and influence. Nero’s estrangement from the Senate and the military led to a revolt, culminating with the emperor’s forced suicide in 68 CE. The ancient sources, written by senators, tarnished the emperor’s name for posterity, and the early Christian historians cast the emperor as a first persecutor, making Nero an Antichrist.    6. Vespasian: The New Order Gold coin of Vespasian, commemorating the restoration of peace, 71 CE. Source: The British Museum   Emperor Vespasian (69 – 79 CE) was the first Roman emperor who was not a member of the Julio Claudian dynasty. He was also the first emperor to seize the throne by force. Vespasian spent his reign working tirelessly to restore the Roman Empire’s power and stability following the chaotic “Year of the Four Emperors.”     Vespasian had no blood relation to his predecessors, which led him to pass the Lex de imperio Vespasiani, a law that conferred imperial powers upon him, a law which would be used by all Roman emperors to legitimize their claim. The new emperor also began a propaganda campaign to legitimize his rule, minting coins praising Vespasian’s restoration of peace, and the support of the army. Emperor Vespasian stabilized finances, funding a vast building program, including the construction of the Colosseum.    During Vespasian’s reign, Rome continued its territorial expansion, particularly in Britain, through the conquests of General Agricola. He also continued to fight the Jewish revolt in Judea, which was fully suppressed by his son and heir, future emperor Titus, in 73 CE with the fall of Masada fort. Lastly, by establishing the new Flavian dynasty, Vespasian secured a prosperous future for the Roman Empire.    7. Trajan: “The Best” Emperor Gold Aureus of emperor Trajan, with reverse showing the Basilica Ulpia in the Forum of Trajan with trophies and quadriga statuary, 112-17 CE. Source: The British Museum   Emperor Trajan (98 – 117 CE) is undoubtedly one of the greatest Roman emperors. During his reign, the Roman Empire reached its apex, expanding its boundaries into regions of Dacia, Arabia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, briefly reaching the Persian Gulf. His most significant conquest, the Dacian War, is immortalized on the famed Trajan’s Column, still standing in the heart of Rome.    Trajan, the first emperor originating out of Italy (Spain), was more than a brilliant military leader. His legions secured vital trade routes and increased the Empire’s wealth, allowing for a grandiose building program in Rome and the provinces. Trajan also implemented numerous social reforms; he expanded the grain dole system to provide food at subsidized rates and introduced the alimenta, a welfare program aimed at supporting orphans and the elderly. No wonder the Roman Senate awarded Trajan the honorific title “Optimus” – “the best” emperor.    Despite his accomplishments, Trajan’s reign was not without challenges. Roman expansionism strained resources, and rebellions occasionally flared up in conquered territories. However, Trajan’s ability to navigate these issues and maintain stability solidified his legacy. Most importantly, Trajan continued the policy of his predecessor, Emperor Nerva, by adopting his heir, the future emperor Hadrian, thus ensuring the peaceful transfer of power.    8. Hadrian: The Builder and Traveler A bust of Emperor Hadrian, from circa 140 CE. Source: the British Museum   Marked as Trajan’s successor, Hadrian (117 – 138 CE) took the purple in 117 CE. His reign is noted for its relative peace and stability, the only exception being the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea in 132 CE. A Spaniard like Trajan, Hadrian spent most of his reign out of Rome, extensively touring the provinces and fortifying the Empire’s vast frontier.    Recognizing the overextension of Rome’s limes, Hadrian strategically repositioned the legions to more defensible locations along the Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates rivers. In the absence of a natural barrier, the emperor commissioned the famed Hadrian’s Wall in Britain – a massive fortification demarcating the Empire’s northern boundary. His architectural legacy also includes the Pantheon in Rome, built by Agrippa but rebuilt by Hadrian, as well as the city of Antinoöpolis in Egypt, founded in memory of his beloved companion Antinous, who drowned in the Nile.    Hadrian was a patron of arts and admirer of Greek culture, which influenced his building program and the cultural life of the Empire. In Tivoli, near Rome, Hadrian built Villa Adriana – an opulent villa and a veritable museum filled with artworks from, or inspired by, the Hellenistic world. While Hadrian clashed with the Senate, even putting four senators to death, his reign is considered a golden era in Roman history.    9. Marcus Aurelius: The Warrior Philosopher Gold coin of emperor Marcus Aurelius, showing the war trophy and the captives, 175-176 CE. Source: The British Museum, London   Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 CE), the last of the “Five Good Emperors”, faced constant military threats, a devastating plague, and internal rebellions. Initially, he shared the throne with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus, who successfully campaigned against Parthia in the East. However, the Antonine plague claimed Verus’ life in 169, wreaking havoc on the Empire’s economy and manpower. To make things worse, the collapse of the Danubian limes left the imperial heartland – Italy – exposed to the barbarian attacks. Marcus Aurelius spent most of his reign on military campaigns, battling the Germanic tribes like the Quadi and Marcomanni. The Marcomannic Wars (166 to 180 CE), were brutal and costly, putting severe pressure on the embattled emperor. In response to the demands of war and crisis management, emperor Marcus Aurelius began promoting both army officers and civilian administrators on the basis of merit and ability rather than birth and class, thus fostering social mobility and expanding the recruitment pool, allowing for greater flexibility in the future. Despite the constant challenges, Marcus Aurelius remained a steadfast Stoic. His personal writing, “The Meditations”, composed during the emperor’s military campaigns, remains a testament to Marcus Aurelius’ philosophical reflection on life, duty, and mortality, a rare glimpse into the mind of the Roman emperor wrestling with the burden of command and existential challenges.    10. Commodus: The Gladiator Copper alloy coin of emperor Commodus, with obverse portrait of the emperor and reverse image of Hercules (with Commodus’ features) holding club and lion skin, 191-192 CE. Source: The British Museum   In sharp contrast with his competent father, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus (177 – 192 CE) has gone in history as one of the most controversial Roman emperors. Commodus was the first emperor who became that by birth, first as a co-emperor with his father and then becoming sole ruler after Marcus Aurelius died in 180 CE. His reign is often seen as a period of decline, marking the end of the era of the “Five Good Emperors” and the beginning of increased instability within the Roman Empire. Commodus’ fascination with gladiatorial combat, in which he participated, did not sit well with the Roman Senate, who perceived it as both a threat to their authority and a mockery of Roman values. However, Commodus’ fights in the arena could be a deliberate approach to denigrate the senators while getting closer to the people who adored their down-to-earth emperor. His identification with Hercules could also have been part of the emperor’s legitimization, following the precedent established by the Hellenistic god-kings. However, the emperor’s strategy backfired, resulting in his assassination in 192 CE. This event not only ended the Nerva-Antonine dynasty but also plunged the Roman Empire into another bloody civil war, the chaotic period known as the “Year of the Five Emperors.”    11. Septimius Severus: The Military Monarch  Gold coin of Septimius Severus, showing his family, the sons and heirs Caracalla and Geta, and wife Julia Domna, 202 CE. Source: The British Museum, London   Septimius Severus (193 – 211 CE) was a Roman emperor who left an indelible mark on the Empire by militarizing the imperial dynasty. Born in North Africa, Septimius Severus rose to power amid the tumultuous “Year of the Five Emperors,” ultimately prevailing in the civil war that followed the assassination of Commodus. His reign was characterized by a significant shift towards a military monarchy, where the emperor’s authority was closely tied to the support of the army. He also sanctified the imperial family, setting a precedent to become a fourth-century trend. Septimius Severus tolerated the Senate but made it clear that the army was the basis of his power. The emperor raised the soldiers’ salary, the first in the century, and increased the number of legions from 30 to 33. He also led several successful military campaigns, defeating Parthia and sacking Ctesiphon. Additionally, he extended the Roman territory in Africa, expanding and refortifying the entire southern frontier.  On his deathbed, Septimius Severus famously told his two sons and heirs, Geta and Caracalla: “Enrich the soldiers, forget everyone else.” However, by laying all power in the hands of the soldiers, Severus made a risky move. The soldiers were powerful backers, but only for the emperors who proved to be competent commanders. When the Severan dynasty failed to produce a capable leader, the soldiers took the power themselves, kickstarting the Third Century crisis.      12. Caracalla: The Ruthless Leader Aureus of Caracalla, with reverse depiction of Victory, seated on a cuirass, flanked by trophy and captives, 217 CE. Source: The British Museum   Emperor Caracalla (198 – 217 CE), the elder son of Septimius Severus, was a model representative of the new military monarchy. Both he and his brother Geta inherited the throne, but following the power struggle, Caracalla had his brother killed and removed all traces of his memory (damnatio memoriae) from coins, sculptures, paintings, and the rest of iconography. He also purged all of his brother’s supporters. Caracalla’s most notable act, the Constitutio Antoniana in 212 CE, extended Roman citizenship across the Empire, a revolutionary move as it integrated a vast and diverse population under a single legal status. The edict, however, had financial motives, as it broadened the tax base and to fund military salaries or grandiose projects like the Baths of Caracalla in Rome.   Caracalla’s reign was marked by his close association with the military; he increased the soldiers’ pay and elevated their societal standing. Preferring the company of his troops, he spent much of his time in military encampments and on campaigns, never returning to Rome. The emperor’s moniker, “Caracalla,” was derived from the Gallic hooded military tunic he habitually wore and made fashionable. Although successful as an emperor and general, Caracalla’s ruthlessness caused discontent among his officers, culminating in the emperor’s assassination on his way to Parthia.   13. Maximinus Thrax: A Brute Silver coin of emperor Maximinus Thrax, reverse depicting the soldier emperor flanked by military standards, 236 CE. Source: The British Museum   The brief reign of Maximinus Thrax (235 – 238 CE) marked a new chapter in the Roman Empire’s history – known as the Third Century Crisis – a time when the Roman Empire was beset by external invasions, internal civil wars, and a succession of military rulers. The period is also known as the reign of the barrack emperors, or soldatenkaiser.  Maximinus Thrax was a lowborn soldier who quickly climbed the ranks and, after the army murdered young Alexander Severus, seized the throne in 235. Maximinus was a stark contrast to his predecessors. The sources tell us he was a whopping 2.4 meters tall (!) brute of enormous strength. According to Herodian, Maximinus was a Thraco-Roman, while the unreliable Historia Augusta calls him a barbarian.   Despite his military victories, the soldier-emperor’s lack of experience in governing the vast Empire, his heavy-handed tactics, and his hostility to the Senate alienated the elites, fueling political instability. In 238 CE, during a failed campaign in Italy, the emperor and his son were assassinated by their own troops. Maximinus Thrax’s reign, though brief, is seen as a turning point, foreshadowing the decline of central authority and the rise of military strongmen in the coming decades.   14. Valerian: A Captive Gold coin of emperor Valerian, showing the veiled Valerian making a sacrifice, 255 CE. Source: British Museum   Emperor Valerian (253 – 260 CE) was a rare exception in the era of low-born soldier emperors. An aristocrat and senator, Valerian ascended the throne after a brief civil war and was proclaimed emperor by his troops, along with his son Gallienus, in 253.  Valerian had little time to govern as the Eastern frontier was under attack by Rome’s new nemesis, the Sassanid Empire. Valerian quickly marched eastwards, at the head of the army, only suffer a decisive defeat in the Battle of Edessa in 260 CE. To make matters worse, Valerian was captured, becoming the first Roman emperor captured by the foreign enemy.  However, the story of the emperor being used as a human stool for victorious Shapur I, or being forced to swallow molten gold or being flayed alive, are probably exaggerations, tales embellished by early Christian historians, portraying Valerian as a persecutor of Christians. Whatever his fate, Valerian’s demise left the throne to his son Gallienus, who had to deal with yet another revolt, perhaps the most dangerous of all, as the Roman Empire broke apart.   15. Aurelian: The Saviour of Rome Gold coin of Aurelian, showing emperor in full military dress on the reverse, 270-275 CE. Source: The British Museum, London   Emperor Aurelian (270 – 275 CE) stands out as a pivotal figure in Roman history, renowned for rescuing the Empire from the verge of collapse. Aurelian inherited a deeply fractured state, with the breakaway states of the Gallic Empire of Postumus in the West and the Palmyran Empire of Zenobia in the East threatening Rome’s unity and stability. Luckily, Aurelian was a man ready for the task, who, in his brief reign, eliminated all the threats, and reunified the Roman Empire as the sole ruler. A lowborn soldier from the Illyricum, Aurelian advanced quickly through the ranks during the reigns of Gallienus and Claudius Gothicus. In 270, the army elected Aurelian as the emperor, just in time to defeat the Juthungi attack on Italy. To strengthen the vulnerable borders, Aurelian abandoned Dacia. He also fortified Rome with the mighty Aurelian Walls. Most importantly, Aurelian defeated both breakaway states of Gaul and Palmyra, reuniting the Roman Empire and becoming “Restitutor Orbis” – the “Restorer of the Roman World.” Aurelian also initiated monetary and religious reforms, attempting to stabilize the Roman currency, and promote the worship of Sol Invictus – the “Unconquered Sun.” Among sweeping reforms that transformed the Empire, Aurelian elevated the imperial office, becoming “dominus et deus,” master and god, laying the foundation for the absolutist rule defining the later Roman Empire. Despite his numerous achievements, Aurelian could not end the vicious circle of internal unrest, falling victim to a plot while leading the army to the Sassanid campaign in 275 CE.   16. Diocletian: The Reformer Gold coin depicting co-emperors Diocletian and Maximian seated together, 284-305 CE. Source: The British Museum, London   Like Aurelian, emperor Diocletian (284 – 305 CE) came from Illyricum, rising through the ranks and taking the purple with the army’s support. His reign was marked by significant stability and longevity, a stark contrast to the short tenures of many of his predecessors. Diocletian managed such a feat by redefining imperial rule – instituting a system known as the Tetrarchy. Recognizing the vastness and vulnerability of the Roman Empire, Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into four administrative regions, each ruled by a senior emperor (Augustus) with a designated heir (Caesar). The Tetrarchy aimed to provide more efficient governance and military defense and ensure a smoother transition of power. The first two Augusti were Diocletian and his fellow officer Maximian, while the juniors were Galerius and Constantius.   With the Empire stable and secure, Diocletian enacted sweeping reforms, strengthening the empire’s finances, reorganizing the administration and the army, redefining the emperor’s office, and introducing more centralized, autocratic rule. The Tetrarchy, however, fractured soon after Diocletian’s voluntary abdication in 305 CE (the first for a Roman emperor) due to power struggles among his successors.   17. Constantine the Great: The Christian Gold solidus of emperor Constantine I, showing the personification of Victory, 336-337 CE. Source: The British Museum, London   Emperor Constantine the Great (306 – 337 CE) rightly deserves his moniker. Besides perhaps Augustus, no Roman emperor made such a pivotal change, charting the course of the Empire for the next thousand years. Constantine played a central role in dismantling Diocletian’s Tetrarchy, plunging the Empire into a series of civil wars, from which he emerged as the sole victor.  The most important of Constantine’s military achievements is his victory over Maxentius’ in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Constantine’s vision before the battle (“In Hoc Signo Vinces”) eventually led to the Edict of Milan in 313, by which Christianity became the permitted religion and one of the main imperial religions. Constantine I converted to Christianity only on his deathbed, but he laid a strong foundation for Christianizing the Roman Empire, Europe, and eventually the world. Another fateful decision of Constantine was the foundation of Constantinople, the new imperial capital in 330, which shifted the Empire’s center eastwards, assuring its survival for another millennium. Constantine also enacted a series of reforms: He restructured the Roman government, separated military and civil authority, reorganized the army, and introduced solidus – the “dollar of the Middle Ages.” Lastly, Constantine the Great established a new imperial dynasty, further strengthening the Roman Empire and making it a fourth-century superpower.      18. Julian: The Last Pagan Emperor Golden coin of emperor Julian with his signature philosopher beard, reverse depicting emperor dragging the captive, 360-363 CE. Source: British Museum   Emperor Julian, known as Julian the Apostate (361 – 363 CE), was the last Roman emperor who tried (but failed) to turn the clock back and restore paganism in a rapidly Christianizing Empire. One of the few members of the imperial family to survive the purges and civil wars of his cousin – emperor Constantius II – Julian was appointed a junior emperor (Caesar) and given command over the army of Gaul. There, he earned his troops’ loyalty through victories against the Alamanni, leading to Julian’s acclamation as emperor. Constantius’ sudden death in 361 spared the Roman Empire another civil war, leaving Julian the sole ruler. A scholar enamored with Hellenistic culture, Julian enacted sweeping reforms to simplify the imperial court and reduce expenses. However, the philosopher-emperor’s most significant act was to revive paganism, restoring temples and rituals, and appointing pagans to prominent positions, thereby diminishing Christianity’s influence. This led to an open conflict with the Christian elites, notably the people of Antioch, who mocked their pagan emperor. Perhaps to legitimize his usurpation and unite a deeply divided army, Julian embarked on a Sassanid campaign in 363 CE. Although initially successful, Julian’s Persian expedition ultimately failed, leading to his death in battle. The emperor’s demise was followed by the reversal of all his pagan policies, with Christianity solidifying its dominance in subsequent years.    19. Theodosius the Great: The Turning Point Gold solidus of Theodosius I, with reverse depiction of Constantinople’s personification, ca. 388-393 CE. Source: The National Museums, Berlin   Emperor Theodosius I (379 – 395 CE) ascended the throne during a period of chaos. The catastrophic defeat at Adrianople in 378 and the death of Emperor Valens left the Balkans vulnerable to Gothic incursions. With limited resources and a depleted army, Theodosius struggled to repel the Goths. Ultimately, he permitted these “barbarians” to settle as autonomous allies, known as the foederati, within the imperial territory. This decision had profound and lasting consequences, contributing to the Empire’s gradual decline in the following decades. As a devout Christian ruler, Theodosius convened the First Council of Constantinople in 381, which affirmed the Nicene Creed and condemned Arianism. His most pivotal act, however, was declaring Christianity the official religion of the Empire, effectively outlawing pagan practices. This decree marked a significant turning point, solidifying Christianity’s dominance within the Roman Empire. Theodosius achieved a durable peace with the Sassanian Empire, but his aspirations for a dynastic legacy led to two devastating civil wars, depleting Rome’s already strained military resources. Theodosius’ unexpected death in 395 left the Empire in the hands of his young sons, Honorius and Arcadius. However, real power lay with powerful military commanders and bureaucrats like Stilicho and Rufinus. While in the East, the emperors eventually restored their authority, in the West, imperial power steadily declined, culminating in the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire.   20. Constantine XI – The Last Roman Emperor Portrait of Constantine XI Palaeologus, from André Thevet’s ‘Les vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres’, 1584. Source: British Museum   Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos (1449 – 1453 CE) was the last Roman Emperor, presiding over the remnants of a once mighty state, also known as the Byzantine Empire. Inheriting a realm on the verge of collapse, Constantine faced the formidable Ottoman Empire, poised to seize Constantinople. Born into the last imperial dynasty – the Palaiologoi – Constantine had to deal with challenges from the very start, including the need to secure internal stability and bolster imperial defenses against the Ottomans, led by the ambitious Sultan Mehmed II. During his brief reign, emperor Constantine worked tirelessly, sought alliances with Western powers and the Pope, even recognizing the Catholic Church’s supremacy, which angered his subjects. Despite his diplomatic efforts, Western assistance was limited, and the Empire had to face alone the overwhelming military might of Ottoman forces. In the face of these insurmountable odds, outnumbered and aided only by a few Westerners, like Genovese general Giustinianni, Constantine XI led the defense of Constantinople during the city’s final siege in May 1453. The last Roman emperor fought valiantly alongside his men until the Theodosian Walls fell to the Ottoman cannons. Constantine’s death in battle marked not only the end of his reign but also the end of the unbroken line of emperors going back all the way to Augustus. It also marked the end of the Roman Empire and the dawn of a new era.  

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