by Leo Hohmann, Leo’s Newsletter: He reserves the right to attack any nation that attacks Russia, and that includes the U.S. and NATO who are allowing their long-range missiles to be fired into Russian territory Russian President Putin gave a 7-minute speech today and explained that they used a novel system, a medium-range missile with […]

  Operation Paperclip (formerly known as Operation Overcast) was initiated in 1945 by the newly established Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA) of the United States. As tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States over global domination grew, the Truman administration envisioned Germany’s scientific and technological advances during World War II as a valuable potential asset, particularly for military and rocketry development.   Origins of Operation Paperclip & The Osenberg List Former Nazi scientist Kurt Debus with President John F Kennedy, 1962. Source: Daily Star   Germany’s much anticipated Operation Barbarossa to seize control of the Soviet Union in June 1941 ultimately failed. Following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in early December 1941, the United States joined the Allied forces (Great Britain, France) and entered World War II. The geopolitical landscape was shifting quickly and not to Nazi Germany’s advantage.   The Nazi army’s resources were exhausted during Operation Barbarossa. In 1943, Adolf Hitler issued an order to remove all scientists and technicians from battle to accelerate research and development. The order intended to strengthen Germany’s self-defense capabilities in the event of an impending Soviet attack. Author Dieter K. Huzel described the event in his book Peenemünde to Canaveral:   “Overnight, PhD.s were liberated from KP duty, masters of science were recalled from orderly service, mathematicians were hauled out of bakeries, and precision mechanics ceased to be truck drivers.”   Reportedly, nearly 4,000 rocketeers were relocated to Peenemünde, coastal Germany, the largest military research center in Europe from 1936 to 1945.   Engineer and scientist Werner Osenberg, the head of the Military Research Association, was tasked with identifying, locating, and assessing German intellectuals for their ideological and political liability. The final result of this research was the so-called Osenberg List, composed of prominent scientists, engineers, and technicians from Germany, most of whom were on the frontlines of World War II.   As World War II headed to its end, Nazi Germany still astounded the Allied forces with its advanced military equipment, including rockets, jet fighters, V-1 unpiloted aircraft, and V-2 missiles. The progress did not go unnoticed.   Nazi scientist Wernher von Braun watches the launch of a missile with Field Marshall Walther von Brauchitsch. Source: Daily Star   The great powers, and particularly the United States, aware of Germany’s defeat and an increasingly polarizing world, intended to exploit Nazi scientific advancements to enhance its own military capabilities. In the short term, Japan still posed a significant threat to the Allied powers. New military developments would assist the United States in neutralizing Japanese forces. In the long term, future confrontations with the Soviet Union in the context of the upcoming Cold War and arms race would require advanced scientific infrastructure.   Additionally, the United States leadership feared a future German resurgence, as happened after World War I. The exploitation of the German intellectual capital would contain Germany’s future imperialist aspirations. This vision quickly turned into a spontaneous race for German intellectuals and scientists, along with any relevant data and secret papers.   General Henry H. Arnold, the commander of the Army Air Forces in the United States, established the Air Technical Intelligence Services in 1944 with the mission of locating and obtaining Nazi military research materials and secret information. Operation Overcast was the original codename of these efforts. The establishment of a new intelligence service was also motivated by a setback in American military technologies, particularly the challenges of targeting German jet fighters, such as the V-2 rocket. This obstacle might have compromised Operation Overlord, launched in June 1944 to liberate Germany-occupied Western Europe.   Former Nazi scientist Werner von Braun (right) celebrates the successful launch of Explorer 1 satellite: the birth of the US space program. Source: Daily Star   One of the first tangible results of the operation was the launch of Operation Lusty on April 22, 1945. The name is derived from the initials of the Luftwaffe, the German Air Force, one of the largest air forces in Europe. Operation Lusty merged wartime American intelligence teams and established a united Exploitation Division, providing guidance for identifying and localizing important documents and materials throughout the European continent.   The search proved successful. In March 1945, at Bonn University, a Polish laboratory technician found pieces of the Osenberg List stuffed in a toilet. The list subsequently reached American intelligence services. The United States Army Major Robert B. Staver, Chief of the Jet Propulsion Section of the Research and Intelligence Branch of the Army Ordnance Corps, utilized the Osenberg List to compile his own list of German scientists to be captured and transferred to the United States.    Advancements of Operation Paperclip & Controversy Researcher Robert Miller led an investigation into the combustor performance of a German Jumo 004 engine at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, 1945. Source: NASA Image and Video Library   In August 1945, Colonel Holger N. Toftoy, chief of the Rocket Branch in the Research and Development Division of Army Ordnance, introduced one-year contracts to the selected German rocket scientists to work for the United States. In total, 127 individuals accepted the offer. The United States pledged to relocate their families as well.   A small group of German rocket scientists first arrived in Texas in September 1945: Wernher von Braun, Erich W. Neubert, Theodor A. Poppel, August Schulze, Eberhard F. M. Rees, Wilhelm Jungert, and Walter Schwidetzky. They were some of the most prominent scientists within the German intellectual circles, as well as closely affiliated with the Nazi Party. Immediately, they were tasked to work on rocket testing at White Sands Proving Grounds as “War Department Special Employees.”   The German Rocket Team, also known as the Von Braun Rocket Team, poses for a group photograph at Fort Bliss, 1946. Source: NASA Image and Video Library   The arrival of high-level Nazi scientists in the United States was controversial. Almost simultaneously, on September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered in World War II. Protest broke out, and with World War II almost to its end, there was no need for Nazi scientists and their families to reside in the United States.   The urgency of technological advancements and the almost immediate progress of the newly moved intellectuals forced the authorities to seek ways to bypass the opposition. In March 1946, the United States renamed Operation Overcast to Operation Paperclip. The name “paperclip” derives from the fact that the dossiers of Nazi scientists and engineers were marked with paperclips.   Nazi Astronaut by Ben McDougal, 2017. Source: The Gasmask Artstation   Wernher von Braun, for example, despite his controversial affiliation with the Nazi Party, played a pivotal role in the successful development of the Redstone, the United States’ nuclear-armed ballistic missile program. He and his team, composed of about 125 scientists, successfully developed and launched Explorer I, the first United States satellite, following the Soviet Union’s announcement of the successful launch of Sputnik in 1955. Later, in 1960, he became part of NASA, developing the Saturn V rocket, which was used in the Apollo program, ultimately leading to the successful landing of the United States on the moon in 1969. During this time, he held the position of director of NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center.   Hubertus Strughold is another well-known researcher of the Third Reich who relocated to the United States in 1947. Strughold served as a chief scientist of the Aerospace Medical Division at Brooks Air Force and studied space medicine, leading clinical research on the physiological and behavioral effects of space travel and the space environment on the human body.   In 1948, Dr. Hubertus Strughold became the first Professor of Space Medicine at the Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine. His contributions to the development of aerospace medicine were so fundamental that he was regarded as the “Father of Space Medicine.” In Germany, Dr. Hubertus Strughold led the German Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine. The institute was known for its torturous medical experiments on the prisoners of the Dachau concentration camp. Strughold denied any affiliation with war atrocities conducted by Nazi Germany. His figure, however, remained controversial throughout history. American historian Mark L. Kornbluh stated:   “American scientific recruiting teams ignored the inhumane basis of much of their work and treated Nazi scientists as both colleagues and friends…Dr. Strughold pioneered aviation medicine through gruesome experiments conducted on prisoners in Dachau.”   Berndt (right) and water tunnel used in parachute development, 1962. Source: Wright State University Libraries   During World War II, Reinhard Gehlen served as Adolf Hitler’s top high-level intelligence officer on the Eastern Front. Gehlen actively engaged in the preparation of Operation Barbarossa, a Nazi attempt to conquer the Soviet Union. In 1945, Nazi Germany was defeated. Gehlen offered the United States access to the Nazi intelligence archives and his personal intelligence information about the Soviet Union in exchange for his, his family’s, and his colleagues’ freedom. The United States, aware of Gehlen’s expertise and intelligence contacts throughout the European continent, accepted the offer. As a result, Gehlen and his family relocated to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip.   In collaboration with US intelligence agencies, Gehlen established an espionage agency, the Gehlen Organization. When Germany was divided, Gehlen became the head of the Federal Intelligence Service of West Germany (BND), established in 1956. He employed a number of former Nazi officers.   Public attention to Gehlen’s controversial activities in West Germany was drawn only in 2005, when the National Security Archive made public the CIA’s secret documentary history, Forging an Intelligence Partnership: CIA and the Origins of the BND, 1945–49. The CIA documents reveal that Gehlen’s intelligence network faced significant setbacks. As the document states, the BND became a “double-edged sword,” which “boosted the Warsaw Pact’s propaganda efforts and suffered devastating penetrations by the KGB.” Throughout the 1950s, 86 aeronautical engineers were positioned at Wright Field, a top-secret World War II Air Force test center in the United States. The United States Army Signal Corps employed 24 German scientists with backgrounds in physics, chemistry, geophysics, and electronics engineering.   Legacy of Operation Paperclip The Bumper V2 rocket at Cape Canaveral, one of the products of Operation Paperclip, 1950. Source: Daily Star   Due to its complex and controversial nature, Operation Paperclip remained secret throughout much of the 20th century. Approximately 1,600 German scientists and their families were relocated to the United States, many of whom managed to erase any mention of their Nazi pasts from their histories.   The truth about these scientists emerged slowly. During the 1970s, a number of hearings were held in the United States House of Representatives, though without a tangible result. It wasn’t until 2006 that the Office of Special Investigations (OSI) published an official record of Operation Paperclip.   The OSI’s findings acknowledged that Nazis had been knowingly granted entry to the United States. The 600-page report stated, “America, which prided itself on being a safe haven for the persecuted, became, in some small measure, a safe haven for persecutors as well.”   Operation Paperclip remains controversial to this day, as it is still under investigation. American authorities made morally corrupt decisions in exchange for preserving American and even international security. As President Harry Truman declared in 1963 regarding Operation Paperclip, “this had to be done and was done,” leaving the question of Operation Paperclip’s legacy open to debate.

  Thanksgiving dates back to the early 17th century, rooted in the Pilgrims’ 1621 harvest feast with the Wampanoag people. Today, it’s celebrated by over 90% of Americans as a cherished national holiday, symbolizing gratitude, family, and togetherness. Known for its traditional turkey dinners, parades, and football games, Thanksgiving also inspires road trips and reunions as families gather across the country to share this special occasion.   However, aside from the festive dinners and modern traditions, many towns in the US preserve the rich history of Thanksgiving. Some trace their roots to colonial times, hosting historical reenactments, festivals, and community gatherings. Others have developed unique traditions over generations and created vibrant celebrations that bring the holiday to life in meaningful and memorable ways. Below are ten towns that truly embody the Thanksgiving tradition.   1. Plymouth, Massachusetts Thanksgiving Parade, Plymouth, Massachusetts. Source: Flickr   This beautiful historic town in Massachusetts was the landing site of the Mayflower in 1620. The Pilgrims established Plymouth Colony here, marking one of the earliest European settlements in North America. In the autumn of 1621, after a successful harvest, the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag people shared a feast, an event widely regarded as the first Thanksgiving. Today, Plymouth keeps this history alive with its annual America’s Hometown Thanksgiving Celebration, featuring a parade, historical reenactments, and food festivals.   The town offers you a rich tapestry of historical sites. The Plimoth Patuxet Museums provide immersive experiences of 17th-century colonial and Indigenous life. The Mayflower II, a replica of the original ship, is docked nearby, allowing exploration of the Pilgrims’ transatlantic journey. Plymouth Rock, though modest in size, symbolizes the Pilgrims’ arrival and is a focal point of Pilgrim Memorial State Park. Additionally, Burial Hill offers panoramic views and serves as the final resting place for many early settlers.   2. Charles City, Virginia (Berkeley Plantation) Berkeley Plantation, Shrine marking 1st Thanksgiving in America. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located in Charles City, Virginia, Berkeley Plantation holds a significant place in American history as the site of the first official English Thanksgiving. On December 4, 1619, Captain John Woodlief and 35 settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred and, following their charter’s directive, held a service of Thanksgiving to God. This event predates the more commonly recognized 1621 Plymouth feast.   Berkeley Plantation commemorates this historic occasion with the annual Virginia Thanksgiving Festival, typically held on the first Sunday of November. The festival features a reenactment of the 1619 landing, colonial period demonstrations, traditional music, and a formal program honoring the original Thanksgiving.   When visiting, don’t forget to explore the plantation’s Georgian mansion, built in 1726, and its expansive gardens overlooking the James River. The site also offers insights into other historical events, such as being the birthplace of President William Henry Harrison, famous for serving the shortest time in office, and the location where “Taps” was composed during the Civil War.   3. Deerfield, Massachusetts Yankee Candle Village, South Deerfield, Massachusetts. Source: Flickr   This town was established in the 17th century, and the heart of its Thanksgiving observances is Historic Deerfield, a museum encompassing an authentic 18th-century village. During the Thanksgiving season, the museum hosts special events, including open-hearth cooking demonstrations that showcase traditional Thanksgiving dishes. This will allow you to experience the culinary practices of early New England settlers.   For a traditional Thanksgiving meal, Champney’s Restaurant & Tavern at the Deerfield Inn offers a special Thanksgiving dinner featuring classic dishes in a historic setting. Reservations are recommended to enjoy this festive dining experience.   Other notable historic sites include the Deerfield Academy Campus, which is rich in architectural beauty, and the Old Burying Ground, where early settlers are interred. Walking tours often recount the history of the 1704 Deerfield Raid, which helps you learn more about the history of this charming Massachusetts town.   4. Mendocino, California Mendocino Presbyterian Church on the Mendocino, California coast. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Originally a logging community, 1852-established Mendocino has evolved into a haven for artists and nature enthusiasts.   Nestled along the rugged Northern California coastline, this coastal village offers a peaceful celebration of community and nature during Thanksgiving. The Mendocino Coast Botanical Gardens showcase vibrant fall foliage and seasonal blooms, often hosting events like the Festival of Lights. At Mendocino Grove, visitors can enjoy a unique Thanksgiving experience with nature walks, holiday crafts, storytelling sessions, live music, and cozy movie nights. Local restaurants serve Thanksgiving feasts featuring fresh, coastal ingredients, adding a farm-to-table twist to holiday dining.   For history buffs, the Kelley House Museum provides a glimpse into Mendocino’s 19th-century roots, while the Point Cabrillo Light Station offers stunning ocean views and a peek into maritime history.   5. Fountain Hills, Arizona Fountain Hills, Arizona. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This picturesque desert town is renowned for its vibrant Thanksgiving Day Parade, the only one of its kind in Arizona. Established in 1984, this annual event, also known as the “Parada de Los Cerros,” features themed floats, marching bands, and festive balloons, drawing spectators from across the region.   Founded in the early 1970s, Fountain Hills is home to one of the world’s tallest fountains, which propels water up to 560 feet into the air, serving as a central landmark. You can explore the River of Time Museum, which offers insights into the area’s cultural and natural history, including exhibits on Native American heritage and the development of the Lower Verde Valley.   Outdoor enthusiasts can enjoy numerous hiking and biking trails in the surrounding McDowell Mountains.   6. Elk Horn, Iowa Danish Windmill, Iowa Welcome Center, Route 173, Elk Horn, Iowa. Source: Picryl   This Iowa town is famous for its rich Danish heritage, and it offers a unique post-Thanksgiving celebration known as Julefest. Held annually on the Friday and Saturday following Thanksgiving, this festival marks the beginning of the Christmas season with traditional Danish customs. During Julefest, the town transforms with festive decorations, and local businesses and organizations participate in various activities. You can explore the Danish Windmill, a historic 1848 windmill brought from Denmark, which offers free tours during the festival.   The Museum of Danish America invites guests to enjoy home-baked cookies, gløgg (a warm spiced wine), and coffee in a cozy Christmas setting known as “hyggelig julestue.”   The festival also features traditional Danish foods, craft fairs, and unique shopping opportunities. Events like the Naughty or Nisse 5K Polar Run add a fun, active element to the festivities.   7. Sturbridge, Massachusetts Fall Foliage, Old Sturbridge Village – Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Source: Flickr   Sturbridge, Massachusetts, is renowned for its rich historical heritage, particularly showcased at Old Sturbridge Village, a living history museum that recreates rural New England life from the 1790s to the 1830s. During the Thanksgiving season, the village offers immersive experiences that highlight early American holiday traditions.   You can explore over 40 original buildings, including homes, a meetinghouse, and a working farm, all staffed by costumed interpreters demonstrating period crafts and daily activities.   Special Thanksgiving events often feature traditional cooking demonstrations, where guests can learn about 19th-century recipes and dining customs.   Additionally, the Oliver Wight Tavern, located within the village, typically hosts a Thanksgiving buffet, offering a menu inspired by historical dishes.   8. Williamsburg, Virginia Horse drawn carriage, Williamsburg, Virginia. Source: Flickr   As a pivotal site in colonial America, Williamsburg allows you to experience 18th-century life, especially during the Thanksgiving season. Colonial Williamsburg, the nation’s largest living history museum, hosts a variety of events during Thanksgiving week. Guests can enjoy festive decorations, historical reenactments, and special programs that showcase colonial-era celebrations. Traditional Thanksgiving meals are served in historic taverns, offering dishes inspired by 18th-century recipes.   Also, Williamsburg’s historic sites provide a year-round glimpse into America’s past. The Governor’s Palace, Capitol Building, and numerous restored homes and shops allow visitors to explore colonial architecture and daily life. Engaging with costumed interpreters and participating in hands-on activities makes the experience even richer.   9. Duxbury, Massachusetts Sweetser’s General Store, Duxbury, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic seaside town, located approximately 35 miles south of Boston, was settled by Pilgrims from Plymouth Colony, including notable figures such as Myles Standish, William Brewster, and John Alden. These individuals were instrumental in the survival of the colony and the 1621 harvest feast, which became the foundation for Thanksgiving traditions.   The town’s name is believed to honor Duxbury Hall in Lancashire, England, the ancestral home of the Standish family.   In the 19th century, Duxbury became a prominent center for shipbuilding, boasting about 20 shipyards by the 1840s and becoming the largest producer of sailing vessels on the South Shore.   Visitors can explore the Myles Standish Burial Ground, the oldest maintained cemetery in the United States, where Standish and other Pilgrims are buried. The Alden House Historic Site, a National Historic Landmark, preserves the home of John and Priscilla Alden, offering insights into the lives of those who lived through the first Thanksgiving era.   10. Sandwich, Massachusetts Old East Mill, Heritage Museum and Gardens, Sandwich, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This town was established in 1637 and is one of the oldest towns in the United States. It holds a significant place in early American history. Sandwich was founded by settlers from Saugus, Massachusetts, including figures like Edmund Freeman, who sought religious freedom and new opportunities.   These early settlers shared similar experiences to the Pilgrims of Plymouth, facing hardships and relying on communal gatherings to celebrate successful harvests, which were precursors to the Thanksgiving tradition.   When visiting Sandwich, make sure to explore its historic sites, such as the Hoxie House, one of the oldest surviving houses in Massachusetts, offering insights into 17th-century colonial life. The Dexter Grist Mill, an operational mill from 1654, showcases early American agricultural practices.

  Italy has a unique distinction in both World Wars: it switched sides! In 1914, when World War I began in Europe, Italy was a Central Power allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The following year, however, Italy entered the war as an Allied Power, fighting against Austria. Almost thirty years later, Italy was in a similar situation. Once again, Italy was an ally of Germany and Austria (which had been annexed by Germany prior). In October 1943, one month after the Allies landed in Italy relatively unopposed due to secret negotiations, the country switched sides again to join the Allies. Why did Italy make both of these switches and did it work out in Italy’s favor?   Setting the Stage: The Nation of Italy Emerges A map showing the states that unified to become Italy by 1871. Source: Cambridge University Press   Unlike most Western European nations, Italy and Germany were composed of separate and independent states until the latter half of the 1800s. Italy unified in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War, which also saw the unification of Germany. These two nations vied for power and prestige among the other developed nations of Western Europe, including at the Berlin Conference in 1885. Due to their junior status, neither Italy nor Germany received much colonial territory in the Scramble for Africa, which precipitated the conference.   Economic development in the new nation of Italy was relatively slow during the 1880s and early 1890s. Italy’s economic weakness was one push factor in convincing hundreds of thousands of Italians to emigrate to the United States. During the 1890s, there were so many remittances of money sent from the US back to Italy that it had a noticeable economic effect. By the early 1900s, however, Italy’s economy had stabilized thanks to its new central bank. The recent economic growth likely contributed to Italy’s decisions regarding World War I.   Setting the Stage: Pre-World War I Alliances Alliances in Europe prior to World War I: The Triple Entente of Britain, France, and Russia, and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. Source: Chino Valley Unified School District (California, USA)   Western Europe had not undergone a major war since the era of Napoleon, and by the late 1800s many powers were itching to use a show of force to cement their status. Likely emboldening their posturing was a system of alliances that had been created, requiring all members to respond militarily to an attack on anyone. The Triple Entente alliance consisted of Britain, France, and Russia, threatening to strike the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy from both the west and east.   Italy joined an existing alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, expanding it into the Triple Alliance. Although Italy was geographically convenient as an ally and could provide additional manpower in the event of a conflict, German leader Otto von Bismarck worried that Italy’s vast coastlines left it wide open for attack. Many also viewed Italy’s government as too liberal and ill-suited for wartime rigors. Italy’s primary concern was a potential attack by France, with which it shared a small segment of border.   1914: World War I Begins, but Italy Remains Neutral British cavalry charging German soldiers [with spiked helmets] in 1914 during World War I. Source: Historic UK On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia. This began a chain of events that swiftly pulled almost all the powers in Europe into war…except Italy. Despite being a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy chose to remain neutral in the growing conflict. Because Germany went on the offensive against France quickly, as part of its Schlieffen Plan, Italy was not obligated to defend it or Austria-Hungary against an aggressor.   Italy’s decision to remain neutral likely stemmed from multiple factors, such as economic weakness compared to its allies, a geographically unsuitable position for offensives against the Triple Entente, and weak socio-cultural ties to its allies. The quick bogging down of the Western Front in France into horrific trench warfare also certainly dissuaded many Italians from joining the conflict. Political feuds over territorial expansion in the Balkans and the transfer of Italian-speaking provinces between Italy and Austria-Hungary also delayed Italy’s entry.   1915: Italy Joins World War I as an Allied Power A soldier on the Italian Front in France aiming a machine gun in 1918. Source: Library of Congress   Despite the ongoing war, Austria-Hungary refused to compromise with Italy, leading to Italy’s decision to switch sides and join the Triple Entente. On April 26, 1915, a secret deal was signed between Britain, France, and Italy, allowing Italy to seize the Italian-speaking contested provinces from Austria-Hungary. A week later, Italy publicly left the Triple Alliance. On May 23, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, completing its switching sides.   At first, Italy was relatively unprepared for war, with a standing army of just 300,000 men. Although it quickly engaged in full mobilization, it soon became mired in a stalemate similar to France. The Italian Front was fought mostly between Italy and Austria-Hungary along the Isonzo River in mountainous terrain. Unfortunately for Italy, the Austro-Hungarians usually held defensive positions on the high ground, and Italy struggled in the war. In 1917 and 1918, Austria-Hungary and Germany went on the offensive in Italy, hoping to draw British troops away from France. However, by October 1918, German and Austro-Hungarian forces in Italy were exhausted, and they ended up having won no territory.   Post-WWI: Did Italy’s Switch Work in Its Favor? An image depicting two years of political crisis in Italy after World War I. Source: Irish section of International Socialist Alternative (ISA)   World War I was very costly for Italy, especially with some 460,000 men killed. As the fifth Allied Power, which included the Triple Entente, the United States, and Italy, Italy spent some $12.4 billion on the conflict. This resulted in a large public debt that peaked at 180 percent of GDP, mostly owed to Britain and the United States. Although Italy tried to negotiate with its two largest creditors, it was unable to secure a reduction in its debt. The economic situation contributed to a two-year period of political crisis known as Biennio Rosso, or “two red years.”   The diplomatic aftermath of World War I, formalized by the Treaty of Versailles, left Italy without desired territorial gains. Although Italy’s secret treaty in London in 1915 gave it territories from Austria-Hungary, the Treaty of Versailles did not agree. However, the Italian delegates at the Paris Peace Conference, although accepting that they would not receive the territories promised in 1915, refused to give up the receipt of the small town of Fiume in the Balkans. Eventually, Italy had to accept a less-than-desired post-war settlement, sometimes known as Vittoria Mutilata, or “mutilated victory.”   1936: Mussolini’s Italy Allies With Hitler’s Germany A photo of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (left) and German dictator Adolf Hitler (right) in 1940, four years after declaring the Rome-Berlin Axis. Source: World Socialist Web Site (WSWS)   The Vittoria Mutilata and wounded Italian pride, similar to the humiliation of Germany after World War I, led to easier public acceptance of fascism in the two decades that followed. In 1922, following the Biennio Rosso, Benito Mussolini’s new fascist party was swept into power by Italians desiring a strong, law-and-order government. However, despite Mussolini’s rapid rise to power, he did not actually possess the ultimate authority of a true dictator—there was still the king, Victor Emmanuel III. The king agreed to Mussolini’s rule, as the fascists had pledged to uphold the king.   A decade later, the Nazi Party rose to prominence in Germany, and Adolf Hitler was appointed as chancellor. In June 1934, Hitler and Mussolini met for the first time, shortly before Hitler promoted himself to Führer of Germany. On November 1, 1936, Mussolini announced the “Rome-Berlin Axis” in a speech given in Milan, Italy. The two growing powers were drawn together by both being disdained by the international community—Germany for rejection of the Treaty of Versailles and Italy for its war of aggression in Africa.   November 1942 – July 1943: Axis Begins Losing A photograph of American troops coming ashore in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   When World War II erupted in Europe on September 1, 1939, Italy again remained neutral. Despite being a strong ideological supporter of Hitler, Mussolini did not feel his country was well-prepared for war. However, on the eve of France’s fall to the Nazis, Italy decided to join the war on June 10, 1940, declaring war on both France and Britain. For the next year, Italy benefited tremendously from its alliance with Germany—the more powerful ally saved it from defeat in both Greece and North Africa in 1941.   After Operation Barbarossa and the opening of the Eastern Front, however, Italy’s wartime fortunes began to wane. Italian forces struggled on the Eastern Front, and its North Africa fortunes were struck by twin blows in the autumn of 1942: the mass arrival of US troops as part of Operation Torch and the British victory in the Second Battle of El Alamein. Between November 1942 and May 1943, Italian and German forces in North Africa were steadily squeezed out through Tunisia. On May 13, 1943, the remaining Axis troops in North Africa surrendered…now Italy itself was a target.   July – September 1943: Secret Negotiations With Allies A newspaper headline declaring the surrender of Italy to the Allies on September 8, 1943. Source: Italian Sons & Daughters of America   With the North Africa front eliminated, the Axis Powers waited to see where the Western Allies (Britain, Canada, and the United States) would strike next. Unfortunately for Mussolini, the planning had already been done, and Sicily was invaded in July 1943 in Operation Husky. Equally unfortunate for Mussolini was the fact that his defeat in North Africa had already launched plots against his rule. On July 25, after Sicily was lost to the Allies, Mussolini was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III and arrested. He was replaced as prime minister by Marshal Pietro Badoglio.   A map of the Salerno Landings in September 1943, which led to Italy switching sides during World War II from an Axis Power to an Allied Power. Source: The Royal Hampshire Regiment   Badoglio initially pledged to continue the war as Germany’s ally but was secretly negotiating with the Western Allies. He did not want his country decimated by a violent invasion, but he also did not want to upset the Germans, who were spread throughout Italy as wartime allies. The negotiations resulted in the Armistice of Cassibile, which would allow Allied troops to land on the Italian mainland. However, the Germans had been expecting such a plan and quickly seized control of most of Italy as part of Operation Achse.   October 1943: New Italian Government Joins Allies A photograph from late 1944 or early 1945 of Italian partisans, or anti-fascist rebels, plotting against Mussolini’s forces in northern Italy. Source: The National WWII Museum – New Orleans   Mussolini was rescued by German commandos and installed as the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a Nazi-controlled state. German troops in Italy committed many atrocities, including rounding up Jewish people as part of the Holocaust. As the Allies began gaining ground in Italy, pushing northward, the Badoglio government, which controlled southern Italy, declared war on Germany on October 13, 1943. Now free, Italy was a member of the Allied Powers.   However, because Italy was effectively divided between free Italy in the south and the Nazi-controlled Italian Social Republic (ISI) in the north, a civil war was at hand. Although the militaries of the United States and Britain did most of the heavy fighting against the ISI and its German allies, anti-fascist partisans from Italy also assisted. These partisans continued to fight German occupiers and Mussolini’s forces until the end of the war and even caught and executed Mussolini himself at the end of April 1945.   Post-WWII: Did Italy’s Switch Work in Its Favor? A photograph of fascism-inspired monuments and architecture that remain prominent in Italy today. Source: National Public Radio (NPR)   As Nazi Germany faced complete destruction by May 1945, with the Western Allies having entered it from the West and the Soviet Red Army having entered it from the East, it is undeniable that Italy made a shrewd choice in switching sides. Having remained a dedicated German ally would have resulted in a violent invasion by the Western Allies, resulting in more death and destruction than Italy endured. Badoglio’s decision to both surrender to the Allies and then declare war against Germany helped preserve some Italian infrastructure and political autonomy.   However, Italy still struggles with its fascist past, as it did not have to endure a post-war de-Nazification process like Germany did. Italy’s mediocre military performance did not win it much respect from the Allies, nor was its surrender and declaration of war against Germany viewed as noble—Italy was seeking self-preservation. Despite some mockery of the Italian military at the time, the relative lack of Italian aggression may be one reason its international military deployments, second only to Britain among European powers, are more accepted today. Both former Axis Powers in Europe are currently members of NATO, firmly allied with the United States, Canada, and Britain.

  Tatars first migrated to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century from the former territories of the Mongol Empire—the Golden Horde and Crimea. Their migration was the result of the geopolitical calculations of the European leaders. During the territorial struggles for dominance between the Grund Duchy of Lithuania and the Golden Horde, Tatars proved to be skilled warriors. Leaders of the Grand Duchy and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth offered knighthoods and lands to Tatars in exchange for their military service. Throughout the centuries, Lipka Tatars formed a strong community on the European continent and resisted assimilation.   The History of Tatar Migration Tatars’ carousal after the battle of the Kalka River, unknown artist. Source: National Museum in Warsaw   The Turkic-speaking Lipka Tatars originated from the Golden Horde, also known as the Kipchat Khanate, located in the northwest of the Mongol Empire during the 13th century. Following the collapse of the Mongol Empire in the mid-13th century, leaders of the Golden Horde acquired political and territorial influence over its vast territories, including parts of Eastern Europe. The Golden Horde’s imperialistic ambitions coincided with the expansionist foreign policy aspirations of the newly formed Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which covered areas that are now Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and Russia.   Eventually, the two political entities found themselves engaged in a military confrontation over their territorial expansion. Among the leaders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Grand Duke Vytautas played a key role in confronting the Golden Horde during 1392–1430 and extending the Duchy’s geopolitical influence.   Acquiring dominance over the socio-culturally distinct lands required forming political alliances with other regional leaders, like the Tatar and Mongol rulers. As part of this strategy, Grand Duke Vytautas offered the Golden Horde’s Tatars involved in military campaigns the chance to relocate to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania’s territory. The move was motivated by the Tatars’ proven skill as warriors.   Hence, in the 14th century, the first migration of Tatars occurred to what are now Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania. The new Tatar settlers were widely called Lipka, which translates to “Lithuania” in Crimean. In return for the Lipka Tatars’ military services, the Lithuanian rulers granted them autonomy over their religion and culture. The pragmatic decision greatly contributed to the expansionist ambitions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.   Tatars’ carousal after the battle of the Kalka River, unknown artist. Source: National Museum in Warsaw   Tatars assisted the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in its struggle against their Christian neighbors, the Teutonic Knights, in the 1390s. Later, in July 1410, Lipka Tatars played a decisive role during the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War at the Battle of Grunwald.   Much later, in September 1683, Tatars stood on the side of the Polish King Jan III Sobieski in the Battle of Vienna against the Ottoman Empire’s invasion. During this battle, Lipka Tatars fought against their ancestors, the Crimean Tatars, who served in the Ottoman forces.   In 1519, the Tatar petition was presented to the Grand Duke of Lithuania to prove their loyalty and dedication. It read:   “Vytautas is highly revered among us. He did not order us to forget the Prophet… We swore an oath upon our swords to love the Lithuanians when the fate and destiny of war brought us to their homeland, and they said, ‘This land, these waters… will be shared between us.’”   The petition provides an insightful look into the power dynamics and diplomacy of that era, as well as how minority ethnic and religious groups tried to navigate the obstacles of multiethnic states such as the Duchy of Lithuania.   Taniec tatarski (Tatar Dance) by Juliusz Kossak, c. 1888. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Historical sources vary regarding the exact number of Lipka Tatars residing in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.  It is estimated that in the 14th century, about 3,500 Tatars relocated to the region. Only half a century later, around 7,000 Tatars were living in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the successor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The marriage of the Polish Queen Jadwiga and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, in 1386 laid the foundation for the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 by merging the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a united entity.   The 17th century was characterized by strict policies towards religious and cultural minorities, including Lipka Tatars, who were no longer able to enjoy religious liberty on the territory of the Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1667, new laws prohibited the promotion of Lipka Tatars in the military service and the construction of new mosques in certain areas of the Commonwealth. Sejm, the legislative organ of the Polish-Lithuanian government, ruled that only four percent of the wages would be paid to the Lipka Tatar soldiers, causing widespread frustration and economic burden for the Tatar communities. These developments culminated in the well-known Lipka Rebellion in 1672.   Tatars in Ottoman service on the Szigetvár campaign 1566, from History of Sultan Süleyman. Source: The League of Augsburg   By this time, Polish-Ottoman relations began deteriorating, and subsequent wars broke out in 1672 and 1683. Regiments made up of Lipka Tatar warriors refused to serve the Commonwealth Army. A large number of Lipka Tatars chose to fight for the Ottoman Empire.   The Treaty of Zurawno was signed in 1676. The treaty ended the Polish-Ottoman War and granted Lipka Tatars the autonomy to choose between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Fearing to lose the support of skilled Tatar soldiers, in 1677, the Polish Sejm reviewed earlier decrees and reaffirmed privileges and religious freedom for Lipka Tatars, including the right to buy land (free of taxation), build mosques, and hire Christian employees.   Polish King Jan Sobieski ensured the smooth resettlement and integration of Lipka Tatars in different provinces of Poland. Specifically, Podlasie is the province where the first settlements of Polish Tatars emerged in the late 1670s. The majority of the Lipka Tatars remain in Podlasie in the 21st century.   According to Artur Konopacki, a researcher on Tatar culture, Tatars who settled in Poland during this period enjoyed a special status within the Commonwealth’s multi-ethnic population, contributing to the increase of the Lipka Tatar population. Konopacki outlines, “They [the Lipka Tatars] were quite different because they had their own religion, but they weren’t really persecuted… They were viewed as the community’s protectors.”   In 1679, King Jan III Sobieski issued a decree that banned the marriage of Lipka Tatars to non-Muslims residing in the Commonwealth. The decree further contributed to the maintenance of the distinct Tatar identity. Hence, the assimilation process of Lipka Tatars was slow and stretched for centuries. Although their original Kipchak language had disappeared by the 17th century, traditional names, cuisine, and customs are well preserved even today.   The Partition of Poland & Lipka Tatars  The Fall of Poland by Jan Matejko, 1866. Source: Journal of the American Revolution   The three partitions of Poland in the late 18th century (1772, 1793, and 1795) and the subsequent division of the Polish territories between Russia, Prussia, and Austria altered the socio-cultural and settlement structure of Lipka Tatars. The Polish Tatar communities of Podlasie, in the neighborhood of Studzianki, fell under Austrian control. It was also referred to as West Galicia. Russia acquired Vilnius, the Nowogródek and Minsk regions, and Prussia gained Augustów, Suwałki, and Kalwaria, as well as Grodno and Sokolniki.   The Tatars did not experience significant restraints from the new rulers. The Russian Tsars (Catherine II and Alexander I), particularly, acknowledged the special status of Lipka Tatar minorities and treated them with respect. This, in turn, facilitated the Lipka Tatars’ quicker integration into Polish society. For example, Tatar Jan Murza Tara Buczacki was elected to the Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland in 1818 by the Biała Podlaska district. Many Lipka Tatars found jobs in various administrative fields during the 19th century, such as banking, jurisprudence, local government, and the medical field.   Lipka Tatars in the 20th Century The 13th Cavalry Regiment of the Polish Army, staffed by Muslims (Polish Tatars as well as escapees from Bolshevik Russia), 1937. Source: New East Archive   The 20th century brought significant changes to the Lipka Tatar communities in Europe, especially during World War I. In 1918, the newly established Second Polish Republic gave the Lipka Tatars religious liberty by encrypting the right to religious freedom for all faiths in the new constitution. Thus, Lipka Tatar communities in Poland thrived. About 6,000 Lipka Tatars resided in Poland and practiced Islam in 17 active mosques during this time.   The foundation of the Muslim Religious Association in Poland in 1925 marked a remarkable event in the history of ethnic minorities in Poland. The association remains one of the oldest Muslim organizations in Poland, even 100 years later.   The start of World War II disrupted the peaceful coexistence of Lipka Tatars in Poland. The Polish territories populated by Lipka Tatars became a battlefield of the geopolitical rivalry between the great powers—the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. In 1939, with the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the eastern part of Poland fell under the influence of the Soviet Union. Consequently, the majority of the Lipka Tatars found themselves under communist rule. The ethnic policy of the Soviet Union was strict, envisaging deportation, division, and resettlement of ethnic minorities. Many Lipka Tatars were relocated to remote areas of the Soviet Union.   Crimean Tatars by Hūns, Kārlis, 1862. Source: Library of Congress   In 1941, Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler’s rule, invaded the Soviet Union and seized control of the eastern part of Poland. The Nazi occupation of Eastern Poland brought tremendous suffering to the Polish people and ethnic minorities residing there. Again, Lipka Tatar minorities faced persecution, deportation, and forced labor.   The end of World War II, particularly the Yalta Conference held in 1945, granted the eastern territories of Poland, including the Lipka Tatar communities, to the Soviet Union. Once more, ethnic and religious minorities, including Tatars, found themselves constrained by the harsh secular communist policies. Ramadan Yaqoob, a descendant of the Crimean Tatars, outlined in his 2016 interview with the BBC:   “The Soviet period was the worst. All the religious leaders and people of any knowledge were either killed or sent into exile in the farthest reaches of Siberia. Books and archives were burned. Mosques were closed and destroyed. Communities were closed. Islam was forbidden.”   With the establishment of the independent Republic of Poland in 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union, like other ethnic minorities in the Soviet Union, the Lipka Tatars were given the possibility to enjoy a cultural and religious renaissance. Many mosques and cultural centers were established in several towns and villages, mainly in eastern Poland.   Lipka Tatars in the 21st Century Inside the 18th-century Lipka Tatar mosque in the village of Kruszyniany, by Ian Willms. Source:  The New York Times   In the 21st century, about 10,000–15,000 Lipka Tatars reside in the former territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Specifically, in Poland, according to the 2011 census, 1,916 people declared themselves of Lipka Tatar ethnicity.   Most  Lipka Tatars reside in northern Poland—Mazury, Tricity—and even western Poland —Gorzów, Wielkopolski—for instance. However, major Tatar cultural festivals and celebrations (Muslim holidays such as Ramadan Bayrami and Qurban) take place in Bohoniki and Kruszyniany, two small communities near the Polish-Belarusian border.   Centuries of the assimilation process with Polish society, albeit slow, shaped the religious practices of the Lipka Tatars. They have, for example, modified some of the Sunni Islam rules regarding consuming pork and alcohol. The majority of Lipka Tatars speak Polish, and many of them celebrate Catholic Christmas.   In connection to the history of Lipka Tatars living in Poland and elsewhere, ethnologists introduced the term “Tatarhood.” It highlights the Tatars’ commitment to the notion of endogamy, which dictates they must marry within their community. The centuries-long, rigorous adherence to this rule highlights how crucial it is to preserve unique Tatar identities. Because of this, Lipka Tatar’s physical attributes are distinctive: they have somewhat slanted eyes, high cheekbones, a sturdy build, and olive skin, contributing to an enhanced collective sense of identity.   Mufti of Poland in the prayer room of the Muslim Religious Association in Bialystok. Source: New East Archive   On the other hand, Poland has also contributed to the revival of Tatar culture by including it in the Polish historical narrative. For instance, the so-called Tatar Trail is a 150-kilometer-long tourist attraction composed of several Polish cities: Białystok, Sokółka, Bohoniki, Krynki, Kruszyniany, Krynki, and Supraśl. The Tatar Trail provides a unique experience for interested individuals, showcasing the fascinating history of Polish and Tatar coexistence.   Captivated by the history of the Lipka Tatars, Bogusław R. Zagórski, an expert on the Islamic world, noted,   “In the grand scheme of things, it is the only example of a lasting Muslim community in a non-Islamic European country. A community that has, throughout the ages, enjoyed the same rights and privileges until today. They feel that Poland is their fatherland. It’s a phenomenon that Poland can be proud of.”

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Ten European Union nations have begun implementing strict measures targeting Muslim immigrants, forcing criminals, extremists, and those who refuse to assimilate to return to their home countries. The below video focuses on the top 10 nations enforcing such policies, examining the reasons behind these controversial actions, and the impact on affected communities. 

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