The issues debated by candidates and political parties change over time based on technological, economic, and cultural changes in society. In the early American republic, many election issues dealt with federalism and the scope of power of the central government. In the 1840s and 1850s, slavery became a dominant election issue at the national level. Economic issues dominated the elections of the 1930s during the Great Depression. Using the most recent societal changes today, we can predict the looming election issues of tomorrow. Some of these issues are new, being thrust on us by technological or foreign policy changes, while others are perennial (recurring) issues that have returned to the forefront. Here’s a look at our next few election cycles.   State to National: School Vouchers An image inviting readers to learn more about the K-12 school voucher program in Arizona. Source: The Arizona Center for Economic Progress   The first potential political issue to become fodder for future federal elections (US House of Representatives, US Senate, US President/Vice President) is school vouchers. Currently, this is a state issue, as states are in charge of public K-12 education. However, federal candidates may want to make it a national issue by linking federal funding to school vouchers. The school choice movement, which often includes vouchers, has been seen as a winner by many Republicans: countless parents like the idea of receiving government subsidies to send their children to private schools or engage in homeschooling if they wish.   However, advocates of public schools—which are often the largest individual local employers—have pushed back fiercely on vouchers. They argue that voucher funding will inevitably cut into funding for public schools, threatening teacher and staff livelihoods and subjecting public school students to fewer resources. Many also question the quality of education that voucher-receiving students will receive at non-public schools, which do not have to meet objective requirements like standardized testing. With lots of powerful rhetoric on both sides, look for the school voucher debate to grow in upcoming election cycles.   State(ish) to National: Higher Education Costs and Funding Graphs showing the significant increase in tuition costs at public universities between 1996 and 2016. Source: Freopp.org   A separate education issue is the growing cost of higher education, which has garnered complaints from all parts of American society. Both liberals and conservatives are upset that higher education costs are far outpacing inflation. But what can be done? What should be done?   Democrats and Republicans are likely to diverge significantly on their desired solution for rising college costs. Democrats have proposed forgiving existing college debt, coupled with more generous terms for student loans and grants. Republicans, by contrast, have proposed forcing schools to use their endowments to subsidize tuition, resulting in lower out-of-pocket costs for students.   A graphic illustrating the role of money in both K-12 and higher educational decisions in the United States. Source: Education Week   Similar to the debate over school choice and school vouchers, there is a strong cultural component to this debate. Critics of rising college costs often blame a tendency for high schools to uniformly push college enrollment on graduating seniors, driving up demand for college and raising tuition and fees as a result. These critics argue that K-12 schools should give students more options for career readiness and recognize that not all high school students will benefit from, or even desire, a traditional 4-year university experience. Look for both higher education funding and expectations of high schools in promoting college readiness to be significant political issues in upcoming election cycles.   A Perennial Issue With a New Angle: Immigration Policy A graphic representing the immigration policies of the United States, which have evolved significantly since the 1840s. Source: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)   Long before K-12 public education and higher education became political issues, immigration was always an issue. Going back to the 1840s, the United States has had a controversial relationship with immigrants, alternating between acceptance and demonization of people coming to our shores. Immigration has heated up again as a political issue in recent years due to an increase in immigration from Latin America coming across the southern border. Republicans have blamed Democrats for failing to “secure the border,” while Democrats have accused Republicans of inhumane treatment toward migrants and using rhetoric more than action to achieve fair immigration policies.   The new angle in 2024 and beyond comes from America’s declining birthrate. Worldwide, birth rates are slumping as parents are having fewer children, largely due to rising costs and a decrease in the use of children as labor. Proponents of more relaxed immigration policies will likely point to the declining American birthrate as a reason to be more generous on immigration, arguing that immigrants will help continue economic growth as native-born citizens average fewer than two children per couple. The 2024 Republican vice presidential nominee likely intensified this debate by claiming in 2021 that childless families should pay more taxes due to having “less stake” in America’s future.   A Renewed Foreign Policy Debate: NATO and Russia An image of two modern-day soldiers using a laptop on the battlefield, representing the new use of drones and cyberwarfare. Source: The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies.   The eruption of the Russo-Ukrainian War in February 2022 renewed political debates about America’s relationship with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). As the United States rushed military equipment and assets to Ukraine, some Republicans began questioning the economic impact of spending so much money on foreign aid. The war also intensified the use of new technologies in combat, particularly computer-controlled drones and cyberwarfare, to target an opponent’s infrastructure. Some questioned whether continued support for Ukraine would put American infrastructure at risk of Russian hackers.   America’s allies in the region have supported Ukraine to differing degrees, provoking some criticism that the United States is effectively footing the bill for protecting Western Europe from Russian aggression. Many conservatives have complained that most NATO members are underspending on national defense and not meeting a 2 percent GDP target on defense spending. As the United States continues to suffer from high inflation, it is likely that many conservatives will criticize sending defense dollars to Europe instead of building infrastructure at home. However, liberals will likely defend such spending as akin to the Lend-Lease Program at the start of World War II, which helped prevent Nazi Germany from seizing all of Europe.   The US’s Evolving Friendship: Israel and Palestine An image representing the ongoing Israeli-Hamas and Israeli-Hezbollah War, which began in October 2023. Source: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy   As a former superpower, Russia is likely to be a renewed foreign policy challenge for the United States in upcoming elections. Similarly, Islamic terrorism is back at the foreign policy forefront as well due to the brutal beginning of the Israeli-Hamas War, which erupted on October 7, 2023. The terrorist attack by Hamas on Israeli citizens on October 7 brought about global condemnation, but Israel’s aggressive military intervention in Gaza in response quickly brought about its own criticism. Many Americans were and are divided on how the United States should respond: continued support for Israel or increased support for innocent civilians in Gaza and Palestine?   The war between Israel and the various supporters of Hamas will likely continue for some time, making it a potent issue for upcoming election cycles. Having supported Israel during three previous wars (in 1948, 1967, and 1973), the United States is expected to continue backing its longtime ally in the Middle East. However, in a new development, the US government has formally criticized Israel’s failure to minimize civilian casualties. This could spark a new debate similar to early American intervention during the Vietnam War when protesters criticized the government of South Vietnam as brutal and repressive.   A Growing Debate With New Financial Consequences: Climate Change  A graphic illustrating the several variables affecting our planet’s climate, or long-term weather patterns. Source: Pierce County, Washington   The modern environmental movement dates back to the 1960s when critics attacked pollution being spewed by corporations. Over time, scientists began pointing to more widespread dilemmas caused by decades of fossil fuel and chemical use: climate change. Although the first predictions of global warming were made as far back as 1896, it took many years of data for most scientists to agree that the planet was actually experiencing the phenomenon. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the first international efforts to understand and attempt to limit climate change and global warming. With each subsequent election cycle, liberals increased their focus on environmental issues, often facing conservative denial.   Recent elections have seen increased partisan intensity over climate change, especially as governments around the world have proposed reforms and limits on activities. In the United States, Republicans have largely opposed government efforts to limit carbon emissions and investment in clean energy. This increase in heated rhetoric is likely to continue in future election cycles as climate scientists report continued—even accelerated—global warming. Environmentalists will urge governments to reduce the use of fossil fuels, and conservatives will argue that such restrictions will cost more money and eliminate jobs in the fossil fuel industry.   A Classic: The National Debt and Deficit Spending A graph showing the increase in the United States national debt since 1970, accompanied by forced increases in the debt ceiling. Source: World Economic Forum   The national debt has been a perennial political issue in the United States, especially since Reaganomics in the 1980s. Although the national debt remained relatively stable during the economic boom of the 1990s, it began increasing rapidly again after the September 11 terror attacks in 2001. The Global War on Terror, which saw the US invasion of both Afghanistan and Iraq, cost hundreds of billions of dollars directly. Amid this increased defense spending, the Great Recession erupted after the financial crisis of 2008. Government stimulus spending helped limit unemployment and protect domestic industries but at the cost of further deficit spending. While both Democrats and Republicans have criticized excessive federal spending, there is little bipartisan agreement on how to limit such excess.   Traditionally, liberals have called for reductions in federal spending on defense, law enforcement, prisons, and subsidies for industries like petroleum and retail. Conservatives, meanwhile, have called for reduced spending on welfare programs, grants for education and the arts, and subsidies for clean energy industries. With the national debt steadily increasing, look for the partisan battles to intensify in future election cycles as the government is forced to pay the interest on the debt. This mandatory debt service is more expensive every year and will soon force cuts to other federal spending, triggering tremendous battles in Congress.   A Second Classic: Energy Independence A chart showing the sources of oil imported into the United States between 1970 and 2021 (with Russian oil being embargoed from 2022 onward). Source: US Department of Energy   As old as the national debt debate is the debate over energy policy. How far should the US government go to ensure energy independence, or not having to import petroleum? Since the 1973 oil embargo, the United States has sought various means to wean itself off foreign oil, with little success. High oil prices increase demands for energy independence, either through increased domestic oil production or an increase in clean energy sources, but tend to relax when oil prices fall again. The petroleum market is very complicated, leading to lots of political debate over the necessity of government intervention when oil prices are considered too high or too low.   Complicating the oil price issue is the large American oil industry, which likes high prices. Unfortunately, high oil prices tend to harm other industries through elevated costs of production via fuel and energy. Energy independence has long been considered a national security issue, with proponents concerned that foreign suppliers could “cut off” the United States in the event of a conflict. However, the two major parties staunchly differ on how to achieve this energy independence, with Republicans wanting to support the domestic oil industry through relaxed regulations on drilling and Democrats wanting to support a shift to clean and renewable energy sources.   Brand New Challenge: Artificial Intelligence Policy A graphic explaining the different components of artificial intelligence (AI), which has become a hot topic since 2020. Source: Louisiana State University (LSU)   Many people have likely heard of AI policies in regard to education, with teachers concerned about students using artificial intelligence programs to cheat on assignments. At the federal level, many policymakers may currently know little about AI and its status…but that will almost undoubtedly change.   As businesses and common citizens come to better understand and utilize AI software to its full capability, there could be major shifts in how human activities occur—ranging from education to online shopping to creating and consuming entertainment. These changes are likely to be embraced by some but rejected by others, sparking political values.   Currently, education policymakers are struggling with how to handle AI. Should students be prevented from using it now, even though they will have access to it as adults? But could open use of AI cause unexpected ethical dilemmas, such as AI giving users access to private data?   Politically, there are lots of potential pitfalls to both allowing free and open AI and trying to limit people’s access to AI. Open AI could violate privacy rights or inadvertently benefit hackers, while limiting AI could be seen as reactionary and repressive. It is almost certain that staffers in both major parties are crafting their issue papers on artificial intelligence in anticipation of debates in 2026, 2028, and beyond.   A Dark Horse Issue: Medicare for All Returneth? An image promoting a Medicare for All (M4A) bill proposed in the United States House of Representatives in 2021. Source: Congresswoman Pramila Jayapal (D-WA).   Single-payer healthcare erupted as a political issue in 2016 and energized millions of voters. In 2020, it returned amid the Covid pandemic and presidential election cycle. With healthcare costs rising, both major parties will undoubtedly tackle healthcare reform in future election cycles. Will Democrats re-open their Medicare for All proposal for single-payer healthcare? Polling shows a slight majority of US voters in favor of the proposal, which is similar to systems in other developed countries like Canada, Australia, and much of Western Europe.   Demand for healthcare in the United States will increase in the near future as the population ages, which will also increase the number of Americans on Medicare. As more Americans are on Medicare already, liberals may feel emboldened to make renewed pushes to expand Medicare to the entire population. This will likely be strongly resisted by conservatives, who argue that government provision of healthcare will be inefficient and rob consumers of choice. This broad argument has been debated between both sides periodically since World War II but seems likely to re-emerge in the next few election cycles.

  In 1916, the United States National Park Service was established to protect America’s unique natural and cultural resources. Yet many of the country’s most celebrated national parks had already been safeguarding stunning landscapes and historic sites decades before this agency came into existence. In fact, some of these parks are older than certain states themselves. Below, we’ve selected 10 of the oldest national parks, each showcasing a different facet of America’s heritage, whether through unparalleled natural beauty, feats of early preservation, or sites rich in Native American, geological, and military history.   1. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho (1872) Aerial Shot of a Hot Spring in Yellowstone National Park. Source: Pexels   President Ulysses S. Grant designated Yellowstone as the first national park in 1872. This marked the beginning of the national park system not only in America but also around the world. Yellowstone National Park spans across parts of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. It houses a stunning variety of geothermal features, including the world’s largest collection of geysers. Among these is the famous Old Faithful, which is renowned for its regular eruptions.   The Grand Prismatic Spring is also one famous natural attraction at Yellowstone. This is actually the largest hot spring in the US. Also another place to explore is the dramatic Grand Canyon of Yellowstone with its towering waterfalls.   On top of the natural attractions, some of the historic sites to see in the park include Fort Yellowstone, which served as a military post in the late 19th century, and the Lake Yellowstone Hotel, a historic structure that dates back to 1891.   One interesting thing to know is that the rich human history of Yellowstone stretches back over 11,000 years, with archaeological sites and oral traditions highlighting its significance to Native American tribes.   2. Sequoia National Park, California (1890) The Giant Forest in Sequoia National Park, California. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Just a few years after the establishment of Yellowstone, the future of the Giant Forest was secured when logging in the area was stopped. This was when Sequoia National Park was officially created. This protected region, which is found in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, became known as the “Land of Giants” thanks to its towering sequoia trees. The park was established in 1890, and it’s famous for its iconic General Sherman Tree, which is the largest living tree by volume. Sequoia National Park is also home to Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the contiguous US.   When visiting the park, you can explore its deep history through sites like Tharp’s Log, a cabin made from a hollowed-out sequoia, where early settler Hale Tharp lived. It’s also worth checking out Hospital Rock, which showcases ancient Native American pictographs.   The scenic landscapes in Sequoia are equally impressive. If you love hiking, you can climb Moro Rock for panoramic views of the Sierra Nevada. You can also head to the stunning Crystal Cave, a marble cavern filled with stalactites and stalagmites.   3. Yosemite National Park, California (1890) Valley View in Yosemite National Park. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The journey of Yosemite National Park toward preservation began in 1864 when President Abraham Lincoln signed the Yosemite Grant, setting aside land for protection. However, it wasn’t until 1890 that the area officially became a national park.   Yosemite National Park spans over 750,000 acres in California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains, with the iconic Yosemite Valley attracting millions of visitors annually.   The park is famous for landmarks like El Capitan and Half Dome. Both of these are internationally renowned for rock climbing. It also houses one of the tallest waterfalls in North America, Yosemite Falls. There’s nothing quite like taking in the awe-inspiring beauty of these falls.   If you want to learn about the park’s past, you need to check out the Yosemite History Center. It features historical buildings from the early days of Yosemite as a tourist destination, including a covered bridge and pioneer cabins. There’s also the Ahwahnee Hotel, a National Historic Landmark known for its elegant 1920s architecture.   4. Mount Rainier National Park, Washington (1899) Mount Rainier National Park. Source: Wikimedia Commons   President William McKinley established Mount Rainier National Park in 1899. This park protects the most glaciated peak in the contiguous United States, Mount Rainier, which stands at 14,410 feet and is the tallest peak in the Cascade Range.   When you head to Mount Rainier National Park, you’ll enjoy a variety of landscapes, from wildflower-filled meadows at Paradise to high alpine views at Sunrise, the highest point in the park accessible by car. Each area provides unique perspectives of the glaciers at the park. This includes the massive Nisqually Glacier, viewable from the Nisqually Vista Trail.   Mount Rainier National Park is also rich with historic sites, such as the Longmire Historic District. There’s also Paradise Inn, which is a National Historic Landmark built in 1916. It embodies the rustic architecture of the time. If you love adventures, you can hike the famous Wonderland Trail, a 93-mile loop that encircles Mount Rainier. There are also shorter trails to features like Reflection Lakes and Grove of the Patriarchs.   5. Crater Lake National Park, Oregon (1902) Crater Lake from the rim drive at Crater Lake National Park in Oregon. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This is the only national park in Oregon, and it was established in 1902. Crater Lake is famous for its brilliant blue waters that sparkle during the brief summer season. The collapse of Mount Mazama formed the volcanic caldera in which Crater Lake is nestled. The lake measures nearly 2,000 feet deep, making it the deepest in the United States and one of the clearest in the world.   Visitors to Crater Lake National Park can drive along the scenic 33-mile Rim Drive to enjoy panoramic views of the lake from various overlooks, like Watchman Peak and Sinnott Memorial Overlook.   Chart reveals the oldest national parks in the United States. Source: TheCollector.com   You can stay at the Crater Lake Lodge, which was constructed in 1915 on the caldera’s edge, and enjoy some mesmerizing views. As for the historic district, Rim Village holds several early 20th-century structures built by the Civilian Conservation Corps, which adds architectural significance to the park.   Visitors also have the chance to hike to Wizard Island, a volcanic cinder cone within the lake that is accessible via summer boat tours.   6. Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota (1903) Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Since its establishment on January 9, 1903, Wind Cave National Park has been a remarkable destination in South Dakota. It was the first national park created to protect a cave system. The park, which is located in South Dakota’s Black Hills, is known for Wind Cave. This is a complex cave system that features rare “boxwork” formations, a calcite structure found in very few places worldwide.   The cave’s discovery story is memorable: local brothers Tom and Jesse Bingham noticed air rushing from a small hole in 1881. This sparked exploration that eventually led to the establishment of the park.   Make sure to explore the cave on ranger-guided tours. You can choose among a variety of options, including easy walks as well as more adventurous routes. Above ground, the park spans a beautiful mixed-grass prairie ecosystem that provides habitat for bison, prairie dogs, and elk. For panoramic views of the surrounding landscape, you can explore hiking trails like Rankin Ridge.   7. Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado (1906) Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Established by President Theodore Roosevelt on June 29, 1906, Mesa Verde National Park is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site dedicated to preserving the cultural legacy of the Ancestral Pueblo people. The park is found in Colorado, where it preserves over 4,700 archaeological sites, including 600 cliff dwellings, that tell the story of these ancient people who built intricate stone villages within the cliffs during their final centuries in the area.   Visitors to Mesa Verde National Park can explore famous sites like Cliff Palace, the largest cliff dwelling, with 150 rooms, and Balcony House, accessible via a ladder climb and tunnels. The Mesa Top Loop drive provides a self-guided tour through mesa-top pithouses, pueblos, and farming structures that preceded the cliff dwellings. As for Park Point, the highest elevation in the park, it offers sweeping views of the Four Corners region.   8. Glacier National Park, Montana (1910) Hidden Lake in Glacier National Park, Montana. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This park is celebrated for its dramatic landscapes shaped by ancient glaciers, which once carved out its rugged peaks and deep valleys. It was established in 1910 and is located in Montana. Glacier National Park spans over a million acres and contains more than 700 miles of trails, which makes it a paradise for hikers and nature enthusiasts.   One of its key attractions is the famous Going-to-the-Sun Road, which is a 50-mile scenic drive that crosses the Continental Divide, offering breathtaking views of Logan Pass and nearby valleys. This engineering marvel, completed in 1932, is recognized as both a National Historic Landmark and a National Civil Engineering Landmark.   If you’re looking for a historic stay at Glacier National Park, then you should consider Many Glacier Hotel and Lake McDonald Lodge. They’re both built in the early 20th century and designed to complement the natural beauty of the park.   Other iconic sites include the Highline Trail for stunning mountain vistas and the Grinnell Glacier trail, which leads to one of Glacier National Park’s few remaining glaciers.   9. Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado (1915) Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The stunningly diverse and elevated landscapes of Rocky Mountain National Park are among the most dramatic in the National Park System. The park is known for Trail Ridge Road, the highest paved through-road in the system. This road was built in the 1930s, and it offers breathtaking views as it traverses the Continental Divide.   Rocky Mountain National Park was created through the efforts of naturalist Enos Mills and the growing national conservation movement. It was established in 1915, and it covers over 400 square miles in Colorado’s Front Range. The park showcases towering peaks, including Longs Peak at 14,259 feet, and lush alpine landscapes shaped by glaciers over millennia.   The Holzwarth Historic Site is a preserved homestead on the park’s west side, and it provides a glimpse into early 20th-century ranch life in the Rockies. You also have Moraine Park, which is a popular area for observing elk, particularly in the fall. As for the Bear Lake Trail, it offers stunning reflections of nearby peaks and vibrant scenery.   10. Haleakalā National Park, Hawaii (It Was Part of Hawaii National Park, Established in 1916) Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located on Maui, Hawaii, Haleakalā National Park is named after the massive dormant volcano that dominates its landscape. The park was officially designated in 1961, though it was part of the larger Hawaii National Park before being established as its own entity. In 2005, the boundaries of the park were expanded to further protect its unique ecosystems.   The name “Haleakalā” means “House of the Sun” in Hawaiian. It ties back to local mythology, where the demigod Maui is said to have captured the sun to slow its movement across the sky.   The park is home to an extraordinary variety of plant and animal species, many of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Sadly, Haleakalā also has the highest number of endangered species of any national park in the US.   The volcano last erupted between 1480 and 1600, and its expansive crater and scenic landscapes continue to attract visitors globally.

  From Bram Stoker’s Count Dracula iteration to the Twilight Saga, (not to mention the countless Halloween costumes every year), vampires are an iconic emblem of the gothic and ghoulish culture that awakens every year during the darkening autumn months. But where did these blood-sucking creatures of the night actually originate? The origins of the vampire myth are more recent than witches and werewolves, but predate Stoker’s classic late 19th century novel, even if his description of vampires has become the classic, benchmark definition we know today. We trace the history of vampires to find out more.   What Role Did Slavic Culture Play? Engraving entitled ‘Death of a Bohemian Vampire’, by R de Moraine. Source: National Geographic   While the exact origins of the vampire myth have numerous sources, one of the first notions of vampires as threatening undead creatures roaming the night is often traced by academics back to Bulgarian folklore from at least one thousand years ago. The word back then translated to ‘ghost monster’, referencing the Slavic version of vampires as bloodthirsty ghosts that would terrorize villages, causing widespread disease and damage. The word vampire has also been translated to mean ‘devil’, a nod towards the creature’s menacing properties.    When Did Vampires Enter Western History? A still from the classic horror vampire film Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror, released in 1922. Source: Pop Matters   When German speaking people of the Holy Roman Empire took charge of Hungary and the Slavic people, the legend of the vampire most likely made its way into the lexicon of Imperial troops. From there, the story seems to have made its way into cities such as Vienna, Berlin, and later Paris and London. Such ideas spread eventually to the Americas. In this new context, the vampire legend mutated into a new form. From ghostly apparition, the vampire instead became an undead corpse, with sharp fangs and a need to consume blood.   A surgeon binding up a woman’s arm after bloodletting. Oil painting by Jacob Toorenvliet, 1666. Source: Wellcome Collection   The blood-drinking aspect of the vampire myth may relate to the widespread belief that human blood had medicinal properties. Gathered from blood-letting sessions, blood was often consumed as medicine across Europe and the Americas, as treatment for a wide range of ailments ranging from poor eyesight to epileptic fits.    What Were the First Published Vampire Stories? The Vampyre, by John William Polidori, 1872. Source: Barnes & Noble   Among the first surviving texts outlining the vampire are Anglo-Italian physician John Polidori’s novel, titled The Vampire, published in 1819. Polidori brought us the first version of a vampire as a sophisticated, well-turned-out gentleman with a devilish streak and a taste for human blood. In 1872, Irish author Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu’s Carmilla features a female vampire who preys on unsuspecting young women.   Bram Stoker’s Dracula, (play edition, 1927). Source: Lycanthia Rare Books   Just 80 years later, Bram Stoker’s immensely popular Count Dracula was published in 1897. It is from Stoker’s text that many of the most widespread myths about vampires have come, most notably the image of the deathly pale, impeccably dressed man with white hair and a moustache. Stoker went further, giving his Dracula long fingernails, pointed ears, hairy palms and, of course, the sharp fangs for withdrawing human blood, and transferring his vampiric fate to others. Stoker drew his inspiration for the classic story from various sources, including Slavic folklore, and also possibly Vlad Draculea, also known as Vlad the Impaler.   Did a Rare Blood Disorder Really Inspire Vampires? Front cover for Bram Stoker’s Dracula, edition from 2022. Source: Amazon   According to various academics during the 1980s, a rare blood disorder may have provided us with at least some of the mythology surrounding vampires that would go on to inspire Bram Stoker. The disorder, known as porphyria, which causes the body to produce less heme, has been around for millennia. Symptoms are uncannily similar to those traits we have come to associate with vampires, most notably pale skin, a sensitivity to sunlight, an aversion to garlic, receding gums that gave teeth a fang-like appearance, and red urine, which some associated with drinking blood.   It was thought the so-called ‘vampires’ suffering from the blood disorder were burned at the stake during the Spanish Inquisition, which may well also account for a fear of crucifixes now associated with vampires. Other possible sources for the vampire myth come from misunderstood diseases, including rabies and tuberculosis.    How Do We Define Vampires Today? Promotional poster for American mockumentary series What We Do in the Shadows, 2019. Source: IGN.   Much of the fear surrounding vampires at the time of Bram Stoker have now been abated, and vampires are widely seen to day as fictional, mythological ‘others’ with supernatural powers. The myth continues to persist throughout popular culture, appearing in countless films, television shows, and works of literature. The myth has come to represent our fascination with the gothic, ethereal, and macabre, particularly as the days get colder and the nights draw in.

  Thousands of years after the first towns turned into cities and human beings began trading goods with one another, the barter system gave rise to the need for forms of currency.   Valuable metal served as forms of receipt for grain stored in silos and was used this way for many hundreds of years. Ingots eventually turned into coins. But coins weren’t the only indicator of value. Some of these coins developed interesting characteristics, from their shape to the material used to make them.   Of course, coins weren’t the only representatives of money! Various other items were used to denote value and were passed between buyers and sellers. Here are 10 of the strangest currencies ever used.   1. Salt Salt. Source: pxhere.com   Salt has been famously used as a form of currency since ancient times. According to legend, Roman soldiers were paid in salt. The word for salt in Latin is “sal,” which is thought to have evolved into the word “salarium,” from which we get the word “salary” today.   The likely truth is that salt was used in lieu of coins when the latter was not available, and this practice was probably not that common.   Nevertheless, salt has been used as a form of currency and is still used as currency by nomads in the Danakil Plains of Ethiopia. This practice would have been far more widespread in ancient times, as salt was extremely valuable and sometimes difficult to get. Greek slave traders bartered salt for slaves, and this practice is thought to be the origin of the expression of someone “not being worth their salt.”   2. Squirrel Pelts Squirrel pelts. Source: Western Montana Fur Center   In Finland, the word raha refers to money. Hundreds of years ago, however, during the medieval era, the word meant “squirrel fur.” And that is exactly what was used in Finland and Russia as money. Pelts were the standard form of currency, while paws and snouts were chopped off the pelt for small change.   Red squirrel pelts were the most valuable. In Finland, ten of them were called a tikkuri, and 40 pelts were known as kiihtelys. At one point, the approximate value was 100 squirrel pelts for one cow. In Russia, specifically Novgorod, the 40-pelt sorochok was the standard unit of currency for large sums of tribute and was recorded in documents such as tally sticks and birch bark.   Given the extensive fur trade in these northern places, it is unsurprising that such a system developed.   3. Cheese Parmesan cheese. Source: wallpaperflare.com   In Italy, there has been a long tradition of using large wheels of Parmesan cheese as currency. This practice goes back to the Middle Ages when it was used as collateral for bank loans as well as a form of currency.   A single wheel of Parmesan requires around 125 gallons of milk to make, and the cheese matures for at least 12 months. Some Parmesan cheeses are aged for as much as four years! As such, they are incredibly valuable. After the Second World War, when Italy was experiencing a recession, the practice of using wheels of cheese eased the financial situation, especially for cheesemakers.   Today, Credito Emiliano Bank owns two warehouses full of Parmesan cheese wheels. Almost half a million wheels of cheese are stored there, with a total value of almost $200 million.   4. Dolphin Teeth A dolphin skull. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Sure to draw a lot of concern in modern times, the use of dolphin teeth as a form of currency in the Solomon Islands is a practice that dates back hundreds of years and is still in use today.   This currency becomes especially valuable during global recessions when international currencies such as the US Dollar and the British Pound lose value. As a result, the dolphin hunting industry in the Solomon Islands has drawn criticism from environmentalists.   Dolphin teeth can be used for many transactions but are especially important in traditional roles. The purchase of a bride usually costs around 1,000 dolphin teeth, which represents the death of ten dolphins.   5. Tea Bricks Tea brick. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In many parts of East Asia, tea has traditionally been pressed into blocks, although the practice is not as common as it used to be.   Powdered tea fashioned this way is compressed by packing it into molds and then pressed into small bricks. In this form, the bricks can even be stamped with designs.   The high value of tea in this part of the world led to the formation of tea being used as money. The practice was particularly widespread in Siberia, where compressed tea, in the form of bricks or discs, served as edible currency.   In Tibet, the tea bricks used were “minted” in the Sichuan province to the east. Various qualities of tea were used to produce bricks of different values.   6. Rai/Fei Stones A rai stone on the island of Yap. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On the island of Yap in Micronesia, stone discs carved with holes in the middle were used as currency. While this is not particularly surprising in itself, what makes it odd is that the discs ranged in size and weight. From discs just over an inch in diameter to huge discs several yards in diameter, many of these “coins” proved impossible to carry around.   Called rai stones on the north of the island and fei stones in the south, these discs served traditional purposes in trade, and larger ones came with an oral history included. These oral histories were a list of the previous owners, and once the stone changed owner, the oral history had to be updated.   The worth of the stones wasn’t just determined by size. The prestige of the owners could be taken into account, as well as any story about the stone’s existence. In one instance a villager attempted to transport a stone via the sea, but his boat capsized, and the sea claimed the stone. Despite this, the stone continued to change owners.   While immovable currency may seem odd at first, it is important to note that gold can be bought and traded without the ingots leaving the vault.   7. Notgeld Wooden Notgeld from Austria. Source: kbcoins.in   Notgeld, German for “emergency money,” is technically any money used as an alternative to real money in times of crisis when there is not enough real money to go around. Notgeld is generally associated with Germany and Austria during the First World War and the interwar years, when hyperinflation caused a massive financial crisis, and the Germans had to become inventive with their economics.   Notgeld from Oldenburg, Germany. Source: rawpixel.com   Places of issue could be companies, banks, or municipalities, and the money usually had an expiry date. As a result, there was a huge variety of Notgeld, and all the different forms have become very collectible.   The strangest part, however, is that although paper was usually used, as the economic struggles intensified, paper was not always available. Instead, other mediums had to be used. This included leather, wood, linen, reused cartons, playing cards, aluminum foil, and even stranger things such as coal, sulfur, and porcelain were used.   8. The Hungarian Pengo 100 quintillion pengo. Source: Katz Coins Notes & Supplies Corp., via numista.com   Hyperinflation can do terrible things to a country’s economy and currency. Famous examples are the economic troubles in Germany after the First World War and, more recently, the economic crisis in Zimbabwe, which saw the issuing of a 100 trillion dollar note.   An even worse case of hyperinflation occurred in Hungary in 1946 following the Second World War. In the highest example of hyperinflation ever recorded, prices in the country doubled every 15 hours.   As a result, the 100 quintillion pengo banknote became the highest denomination banknote ever to be printed. It had a value of around 20 US cents.   9. Plastic Rubles of Transnistria Plastic coins from Transnistria. Source: defactoborders.org   Transnistria is an unrecognized breakaway republic on the eastern edge of Moldova. In 2014, in addition to banknotes representing the same values, four denominations of plastic coins were introduced. Each denomination is a different shape for ease of use by those with vision problems. The 1 ruble coin is round, the 3 ruble coin is square, the 5 ruble coin is pentagonal, and the 10 ruble coin is hexagonal.   The plastic they are made from is a high-quality composite, and the coins are extremely difficult to bend or break. Despite their novel popularity, they have proven unpopular with the older generation, who believe the coins to be ugly and that they wear badly.   10. Airtime People using cell phones. Source: pxhere.com   In many countries around the world, from Romania to Kenya, from Egypt to Zimbabwe, a novel way to conduct transactions has been the transferral of mobile airtime. The trend started around 2011 and has continued to this day.   Airtime has an easily determined monetary value, so it is being swapped for goods and services. Usually, this practice is only used for minor transactions, but the trend is certainly an interesting development in business.   Money is simply any item that has a perceived value and is traded as payment for goods and services. Throughout history, dynamics within various cultures have led to the use of a wide variety of things as currency.   The future brings us new technologies, new opportunities, and new cultures where many strange things will be perceived as having value and will be used in the same way that money has always been used.

We may not always say the right thing to our children. But we can speak life into them here and now.

What else would you expect from Yankees fans

An excavation of the ancient city of Anemurium, modern-day Anamur in southern Turkey, has unearthed a complete 13-line Greek inscription dedicated to a champion wrestler. It dates to the 2nd century A.D. and is the first complete inscription found at Anemurium. The inscription was carved on a marble pedestal 42 inches high and 20 inches wide and was discovered in the Harbor Bath, one of the city’s four known public baths. The dedication names one Flavianus, organizer and sponsor of an athletic competition that took place every five years. At the second of these competitions, an athlete named Kaikilianos, won the adult wrestling category. He didn’t just earn a gold medal or whatever form the first place award took in these local games. His victory was so notable an inscription honoring him was erected, carved onto what could be an altar or, more likely, the base of a statue. That it was placed in the public baths, a center of social, cultural and athleticism, indicates the winning wrestler was someone of great prestige and popularity. Kaikilianos (Caecilianus in Latin) was a popular name in 2nd and 3rd century Asia Minor and north Africa, appearing on dozens of inscriptions. There are funerary inscriptions and dedications referencing members of the prominent Caeciliani family who held magistracies and priesthoods (both traditional Roman and early Christian) and more commonly, their freedmen who adopted the family name after manumission. The Flavianus name is known too. In fact, an inscription found in Oinoanda, less than 250 miles west of Anemurium, mentions one Lucius Septimius Flavianus Flavillianus, a champion in wrestling and the pankration, the pummel-to-an-unconscious-pulp boxing discipline. He had been a champion in these sports since he was a youth, and his skill in these combat spots made him a successful military recruiter after he joined the Roman army. He too had a statue dedicated to him in the city’s agora. There’s no evidence connecting this Flavianus to the sponsor of the games in Anemurium other than the sheer coincidence of the same sport being referenced in statue dedications and that they both lived in the 3rd century, but it’s a neat fortuity. [Excavation leader Mehmet] Tekocak pointed out that previous inscriptions suggest that Anemurium was a center for training athletes in antiquity. “We know that athletes from here participated in national and international competitions and won awards. Therefore, Anemurium, in addition to being a port city on the Eastern Mediterranean trade route, was also likely an important center for training athletes in antiquity,” he said.

That’s a lot of cheddar. British cheesemongers were bamboozled into giving away over 48,000 pounds of artisanal cheddar. Neal’s Yard Dairy of London says it was tricked into sending 950 wheels of…

Businessmen and social media influencers will converge upon an island paradise this weekend, but it won’t be in Ibiza. The Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman has invited the who’s who of finance…