It's not even an exotic mushroom.

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??‍♂️??☄️?️‍? West in decline - social engineering for white replacement?!? #endwokeism

A life-long love. The post Brian Jones’ favourite Howlin’ Wolf songs: “Track five, side one” first appeared on Far Out Magazine.

from Sputnik News: The world is buzzing: is Russia’s Oreshnik missile unstoppable? Can it break through any defense system? What happens when it strikes? And can it reach the US? Putin has the answers to the questions everyone’s asking. Has Russia unveiled a weapon powerful enough to change global warfare? TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/ What […]

  When we think of Greek gods, we call to mind names like Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades, the powerful Olympian gods that each ruled over different aspects of reality and the cosmos. Zeus had dominion over the sky and heavens, Poseidon over the seas and all waters, and Hades over the Underworld and the dead. But before the Olympians took power, there was another generation of gods, the Titans. While the Titans were generally thought of as cruel gods, the era in which they ruled was still considered a Golden Age. An age that ended with the rise of the Olympians.   Titans: Children of Earth and Heaven Terracotta Lekythos: Helios Rising in his Chariot, attributed to Sappho Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Before the Olympians, so named because they made their home on Mount Olympus, there were the Titans, the offspring of the primordial gods of the earth and sky, Gaia and Ouranos. It was Ouranos himself who gave his children this name after they had violently usurped him, cursing them and warning them of the inevitable retribution that awaited them.   In Hesiod’s Theogony, the poet gave the title “Titans” as derived from the words “τιταίνω,” meaning “to strain,” and “τίσις,” meaning “vengeance” or “retribution.” Though modern scholars dismiss this as folk etymology, Hesiod’s presentation of these early deities characterizes them in this light and sets up the narrative to follow.   It is now generally accepted that the story of the Titans originated in the Near East, modern-day Turkey, as it has strong parallels with the earlier Hurro-Hittite story of Kumarbi, specifically the succession myths from Ouranos to Kronos, commonly transliterated to the Latinized form Cronus, and then from Kronos to Zeus.   Elder Titans Uranus Fighting Themis on the south frieze of the Pergamon Altar, c. late 2nd century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hesiod’s Theogony is the earliest reference to the name Titans, and in it, he gives the title to specific children of Ouranos and Gaia. Oceanus, the god of the world-encircling river Oceanus, which is the origin of all fresh waters. The name is used to denote both the god and the place, much like Hades refers to both the god and the underworld. Koios, the god of intelligence and the axis of heaven. Krios, the god of constellations; Iapetus, god of mortality; Hyperion, god of light and the cycles of day and night. Kronos, the youngest son and god of time. Theia, the goddess of light and sight. Rhea, the goddess of female fertility. Themis, the goddess of law, order, and prophecy. Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory and language. Tethys, the goddess of nursing and fresh water. Finally, Phoebe, the goddess of intellect and prophecy.   While later authors add more to this list, Ouranos called his children Titans as a curse rather than a generational distinction. Proof of this lies in the fact that Gaia and Ouranos’ other children, the Cyclopes, the Hundredhanders, the Furies, and even Aphrodite, if Hesiod’s version of her birth is to be believed, are not considered Titans. Once they came into power, the Titans ordered the world as they saw fit, marrying each other and having more divine children.   Younger Titans Relief showing Selene and Endymion, Rome, c. 3rd century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Later Greek authors added more names to the list of Titans, including the immediate descendants of the twelve laid out in Hesiod’s narrative, consequently changing the meaning of the term to refer to the generation of gods that preceded the Olympians.   Among the most famous younger Titans are the sons of Iapetus and Klymene. Prometheus was the god who created mankind and stole fire from Zeus for them. For this transgression, he was punished by being chained on top of the Caucasus Mountains, and an eagle set on him to eat out his liver every day. His brother Epimetheus became the husband of Pandora. His daughter, Pyrrha, helped to save humanity from a great flood. The third brother, Atlas, held up the heavens.   Other notables are the children of Hyperion and Theia: Helios, Selene, and Eos. Helios was the all-seeing god of the sun and played a role in the myth of Aphrodite’s affair with Ares. Selene was the goddess of the moon and the cycle of months. She was said to have nursed the Nemean Lion, which Herakles killed as one of his labors. Selene also sent the gadfly that caused Ampelos, a lover of Dionysus, to be thrown from the back of a bull and trampled to death. Eos was the goddess of the dawn, whom Aphrodite cursed with a constant passion for sleeping with Ares. Eos once fell in love with Orion and carried him off to Delos, the sacred island of Apollo. There, Orion was killed by Artemis, either because of jealousy or because he challenged her to a discus contest.   Castration of Ouranos The Mutilation of Uranus by Saturn, by Giorgio Vasari, 1555 CE. Source: Palazzo Vecchio   Gaia had six more children by Ouranos. These were the Cyclopes, so named because of the singular round eye in the center of their foreheads, and the Hecatoncheires, also called Hundredhanders, Kottos, Gyges, and Briareus. They each had 100 arms and 50 heads sprouting atop their shoulders. Kronos was so disgusted with these children that as soon as they were born, he hid them away deep within Gaia, causing her a great amount of pain. She crafted an adamantine sickle and begged her other children to help her against their father. Only Kronos took up the task; the rest were seized with fear.   Gaia hid Kronos, gave him the sickle, and told him of her plan. Then he waited. The next time Ouranos visited Gaia, Kronos sprung out of his hiding place and sliced off his father’s genitals with the sickle, then threw them into the sea. The blood that spilled into the Earth gave birth to the Furies, avenging gods that specifically punish acts of familial violence, and the Giants, or Gigantes, meaning Earthborn. The castrated genitals formed white foam in the sea and washed ashore on Cyprus. Aphrodite was born from the foam.   While Hesiod wrote that Kronos acted alone, Apollodorus wrote that all the children of Ouranos, except for Oceanus, perpetrated the assault. Regardless, Ouranos blamed all of his children and dubbed them Titans.   Wrestling Control of Heaven Oceanus and Tethys, mosaic found in Zeugma, Turkey, c. 1st-2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Most versions of the Titan myth have Kronos taking immediate control in the wake of his father’s castration, but other authors have cited another divine couple that ruled before Kronos: Ophion and Eurynome. The story likely comes from the Orphic tradition, a mystery cult centered on the resurrection of Dionysus and the songs of Orpheus.   In the Argonautica by Apollonios of Rhodes, the author tells of a song by Orpheus that Ophion and Eurynome, the daughter of Oceanus, were said to be the first rulers of the world. They had their rule wrestled away by the Kronos and Rhea and were both cast into the waters of Oceanus. At this time, Zeus had been born, but was still a child hiding in the Dictean Cave, meaning that Kronos did not take power immediately after castrating his father. The throne from which Zeus eventually rules is even called Ophion’s throne.   Chronos, by Agostino Zippo, c. mid-16th century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   There is debate, however, over whether the name Ophion is being used to refer to a different god. He has been equated with either Ouranos or Oceanus, and Eurynome with either Gaia or Tethys. If they equate with Ouranos and Gaia then the story parallels Hesiod’s narrative, except for when they are cast into Oceanus. Since theogonies and cosmogonies seek to explain the ordering of the world, it makes little sense to have the personifications of earth and sky exiled to the fringes since, metaphorically, that would mean the earth and sky were exiled from the current order of the world. If Ophion and Eurynome equate with Oceanus and Tethys, that would either imply that they were the first rulers of the cosmos and not Ouranos and Gaia, or that they ruled in the immediate aftermath of Ouranos’ castration.   A comparison of Ophion and Eurynome has also been made with Typhoeus and Echidna, two monstrous beings that spawned a family of monsters prevalent in Greek myth like the Hydra, Sphinx, Chimera, and Cerberus. In Pherecydes’ Theogony, the eternal god of time, Chronos, a different deity to Kronos, fought a war against Ophion and his children by Eurynome. The name Ophion suggests a serpentine form, and Eurynome, if she is the same daughter of Oceanus that was worshipped in Phigalia, has the form of a mermaid. It is only natural then that their children would have similar forms.   Birth of the Olympians Hercules among the Gods of Olympus, attributed to François Perrier, c. early 17th century CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St-Petersburg   Kronos had six children with his sister-wife Rhea. They were Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and finally Zeus. Kronos feared a prophecy told to him by his parents that he would be overthrown by one of his own sons. In order to avoid this prophecy, Kronos swallowed down each of his children the moment they were born. This caused Rhea great distress, and when she was about to give birth to Zeus, she asked her parents, Gaia and Ouranos, to help her devise a plan to save her sons and get vengeance on Kronos. Rhea was whisked away to Crete to give birth in secret, and, in place of the baby Zeus, Kronos was given a swaddled stone, which he promptly gulped down. When Zeus grew into adulthood, he, together with Rhea and Gaia, convinced Kronos to regurgitate his siblings.   Titanomachy Fall of the Titans, by Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem, 1588-1590 CE. Source: Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen   Together with his siblings, Zeus waged a decade-long war against Kronos and the Titans, which was known as the Titanomachy. The most common and complete version of the Titanomachy comes from Hesiod’s Theogony, in which Zeus and his siblings rose up against Kronos over his treatment of his father, Ouranos, and his uncles, the Cyclopes and Hundredhanders.   The first thing Zeus did was free his uncles, the Cyclopes and Hundredhanders, and recruited them to his side. The Hundredhanders hurled massive stones at the Titan army, and the battle that ensued shook the earth from high Olympus down to Tartarus. Zeus then joined the fray, wielding the thunderbolt that had been given to him by the Cyclopes. Together, they cast the Titans into Tartarus and chained them. Zeus set the Hundredhanders to guard them and had Poseidon fix a gate of bronze to keep them contained.   But the divine feuding did not end. Gaia then birthed Typhoeus, a monstrous and serpentine being able to shoot fire from his eyes. He was to avenge the treatment of the Titans by the Olympians. Zeus fought against Typhoeus and smote him with the thunderbolt. With no more contenders to the throne, Zeus took up his place as king of gods and men.

  Commodus was the 17th emperor of the Roman Empire and belonged to the widely praised “Nerva-Antonine Dynasty.” However, he is generally remembered in sharp contrast to his hallowed “good” predecessors as an infamously “evil” emperor. Raised by the wise and philosophical Marcus Aurelius, the Commodus we meet in the ancient accounts seemed totally disinterested in continuing his father’s celebrated legacy. Instead, we meet a precocious and cruel tyrant, indifferent to duty and propriety, whose debauchery and megalomania are played out through the Gladiatorial games of the Roman Colosseum.   Commodus: The First Emperor “Born to the Purple” Coin of Marcus Aurelius with his son Commodus on the reverse, Rome, c. 172-173 CE. Source: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin   Uniquely, Commodus was the first emperor to be born while his father was emperor and to be raised to imperial authority jointly with his father during his reign. Even the celebrated Julio-Claudians had to use adoption to secure the succession, and while Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, the young man was already 30 years old when his father succeeded to imperial power.   Thus, Commodus was the first emperor “born to the purple,” when his mother Faustina the Younger gave birth to him and his twin brother on August 31st, 161 CE, in an Italian city near Rome called Lanuvium. His father, the Stoic emperor Marcus Aurelius, had been in power for five months as the adopted heir of Antoninus Pius, who in turn had been adopted by the emperor Hadrian.   Marble bust of Marcus Aurelius, Acqua Traversa (Italy), c. 161-169 CE. Source: Louvre   In fact, the Nerva-Antonines were marked by their use of the adoptive principle for succession up until the accession of Commodus. While this had not necessarily been an intentional policy, as each emperor had had no sons to succeed him, it did mean that the “best men” to rule were ostensibly chosen from the senatorial class. This made Commodus and his unique succession to the throne all the more remarkable, especially considering its later infamy.   A Cruel and Idle Heir? Bust of a young Commodus, Cologne, c. 180-192 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Commodus outlived his twin, who died at four, just as seven of his other 13 siblings were lost. This breathed life into an apparent dream that Faustina had before giving birth to Commodus. She dreamt that she gave birth to twin snakes, one of which was much stronger than the other.   At the early age of four, around the time of his twin’s death, his father named him heir, determined that his son would share the same comprehensive education he had received. Even with these paternal efforts, the sources tell us that Commodus had no interest in such personal edification to prepare him for rule but preferred to live an idle and indifferent life instead.   Furthermore, the same sources—particularly the dubious Historia Augusta—assert that Commodus began to exhibit a depraved and cruel nature from early on. For example, there is a horrifying anecdote claiming that Commodus, at the age of 12, ordered one of his servants to be cast into a boiling furnace because the latter had failed to properly heat up the young heir’s bath.   The same source also claims that he would send men to the wild beasts of the arena at whim. On one occasion, it was because somebody was reading an account of the emperor Caligula, and the speaker noted that Commodus and Caligula shared the same birthday.   Such anecdotes about Commodus’ early life are then compounded by general assessments that he “never showed regard for either decency or expense.” Claims made against him include that he was prone to filling his time playing dice in his own home, which was considered an improper activity for someone in the imperial family, and that he collected a harem of prostitutes of all shapes, sizes, and appearances. Further, he enjoyed riding chariots and living with gladiators.   The Historia Augusta then gets much more debauched and depraved in its assessments of Commodus, claiming that he cut open obese people and would mix excrement with all manner of food before forcing others to consume it. Perhaps to distract him from such improper indulgences, Marcus Aurelius brought his son along with him across the Danube in 172 CE, during the Marcomannic Wars that Rome was bogged down in at this time.   Co-ruler With His Father Silver Denarius of Commodus struck during joint rule showing him as “principes iuventutis” on the reverse, Rome, c. 172-176 CE. Source: Portable Antiquities Scheme, UK   Marcus Aurelius continued efforts to redirect Commodus’s predilections by expediting his elevation to manhood and official Roman citizenship in a ceremony known as “toga virilem sumere.” Shortly after this, a rebellion broke out in the east by a prominent governor and commander called Avidius Cassius. Although it was put down quickly and easily, it prompted the emperor to secure the succession.   Consequently, he soon after elevated Commodus to co-ruler at the strikingly early age of 16, marking another new precedent that would be accentuated by later “child-emperors.” Marcus himself had been the first emperor to share imperial power with his co-ruler Lucius Verus, although the latter died in 16 CE from the Antonine Plague.   Yet, with all of these efforts impressed upon him, Commodus apparently did not adjust his behavior and continued to occupy himself in the same ways. His time was spent obsessing over gladiator fighting and chariot racing, and he kept company with habitual degenerates and reprobates.   In what was perhaps a last-ditched attempt to correct his son’s course, Marcus brought Commodus along with him to the northern frontier when war broke out again with the pugnacious Marcomanni tribe, who hailed from across the Danube River.   It was here, on March 17th, 180 CE, that Marcus Aurelius died, leaving Commodus as the sole emperor.   Early Stages as Sole Emperor Marble Bust of Commodus, c. 180-185 CE. Source: Getty Museum   According to the 3rd-century CE Roman historian Cassius Dio, Commodus’s sole accession marked the moment when the Empire descended from “a kingdom of gold, to one of iron and rust.” This remark mirrors the perception of most subsequent commentators, who describe Commodus’s accession as the beginning point of the gradual decline and death of the Roman Empire in the West.   After being acclaimed as the sole ruler near the frontier, Commodus expeditiously (and unpopularly) ended the war with Germanic and Sarmatian tribes across the Danube. This act was traditionally seen as a reversal and regression of his father’s expansionist policy across the frontier, which had aimed to expand Roman territory beyond the river.   Ancient commentators accused him of cowardice and disregard for duty. However, some modern historians have asserted that the move was necessary. It would have placated sectors of the war-wearied Roman elite and allowed Commodus to focus on consolidating his position at home.   Nonetheless, it crucially created an atmosphere of criticism and resentment in the army and the militaristic elements of the aristocracy, who had looked forward to further glory and Roman expansion in the north. However, these elements were somewhat assuaged by Commodus putting down rebellions in other corners of the Empire, particularly in Britain and North Africa.   While these disturbances were being addressed, Commodus’s early years in Rome were not marked by many great policies in the judicial or administrative spheres. He did, however, aim to appease and impress the people by focusing on providing the populace with prodigious games and shows.   The Roman Festivals of the Colosseum, by Juan Pablo Salinas Teruel, c. 1900s. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As a result, he seems to have become quite popular with the plebeian class, and the army was also said to have been eventually assuaged with payments given to them after his accession, as was the custom. The one class that he fatally chose to disregard, which also tended to be the writers of history, was the senatorial aristocracy.   Instead of utilizing “the best (senatorial) men” to fill his bureaucracy and machinery of state, he often preferred to favor his “freedmen”; ex-slaves who had won their freedom. Although almost every other emperor before him utilized freedmen to some extent, Commodus was particularly conspicuous in his promotion of freedmen at the perceived expense of senators.   Manumission Inscription (which freed a slave) from Delphi. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This, like his policy of making peace with the tribes north of the Danube, caused considerable indignation in elite aristocratic circles, particularly due to its contrast with Marcus’s modus operandi.   Conspiracy From Within Statue of Lucilla, Commodus’s sister and the chief conspirator in the first assassination attempt against him, c. 150-200 CE. Source: Bardo National Museum   While some historians have accredited Commodus with a callous and capricious disposition since childhood, many have pointed to the assassination attempt against him in 181 CE as an important factor in his suspicious and infamous behavior as emperor.   The attempt may have had a particularly strong effect on Commodus because it was orchestrated by his sister Lucilla (depicted in Gladiator by Connie Nielsen). Although Commodus would subsequently believe that it was a senatorially inspired attempt, most ancient sources attribute it to Lucilla’s jealousy and her desire to increase her standing.   While there may be some truth to this, especially as Lucilla was once, in effect, an empress-consort to Lucius Verus, it is also likely that she had some backing from senatorial circles. Either way, she used her apparent lovers, Marcus Ummidius Quadratus and Appius Claudius Quintianus, to carry out the deed. Both were caught, with the latter trying to kill Commodus when he entered a theater.   These two conspirators were soon executed, and Lucilla was exiled to the island of Capri and later also executed. After this, Commodus began to distrust many of those close to him or in powerful positions, leading to a series of violent purges based on apparently dubious evidence.   While this trail of blood was being made, Commodus neglected many of his duties as emperor, delegating responsibilities to a coterie of avaricious and iniquitous advisors, especially the prefects in charge of the Praetorian Guard, the emperor’s personal bodyguards.   While these advisors were carrying out their own campaigns of violence and extortion, Commodus focused his efforts on the arenas and amphitheaters of Rome. In complete disregard for his position as emperor, Commodus regularly rode in chariot races and fought many times against maimed gladiators or drugged beasts, usually in private but often in public as well.   Pollice Verso (thumb down), the signal used by Roman crowds to pass judgment on a defeated gladiator, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1972. Source: Phoenix Art Museum   For many, especially in the aristocracy, this was an occupation well below the standards expected of an emperor. This impropriety, combined with the fact that the fights were staged or heavily adjusted to favor Commodus, only added to the farce. In the midst of this increasingly erratic turn, there was another notable assassination attempt on the emperor Commodus, this time initiated by Publius Salvius Julianus, son of a prominent jurist in Rome. Like the previous attempt, it was quite easily foiled and the conspirator executed. Nevertheless, it amplified Commodus’s suspicion of everyone around him.   Rule by Prefects Gold Aureus of Commodus, 182 CE. Source: American Numismatic Society   Soon after these plots against his life, Commodus endowed his favorites and prefects with immense power. The most notorious of these were the freedman Saetorus and the Praetorian Prefects, Perrenis and Cleander. Each is said to have extracted as much as they could from their respective positions of power, as Commodus gave up interest in the proper running of the Empire.   However, Commodus’s favorites were never completely secure in their power. In 182 CE, Saetorus was implicated in a plot against Commodus by the Prefect Perennis and killed by Cleander, another Prefect who was himself a former freedman.   This opened the door to Perennis’s ascendancy, who took charge of all the emperor’s correspondence, putting him in a very powerful and influential position. In this role, he gave away a prodigious number of gifts to various sycophants and prominent personages, especially in the military, in order to expand his power base.   Whether true or not, Perennis was then implicated in a plot against Commodus by none other than his prior accomplice Cleander. Perennis and his sons were executed on the orders of the emperor, leaving Cleander to fill the revolving vacuum of power that punctuated the chaotic Roman court at this time.   At around this time (in 184/5 CE), Cleander made himself responsible for almost all public offices. When he had done so, he abandoned all propriety by selling entry to the senate, army commands, governorships, and consulships to the highest bidders.   Part of the reason this profligate behavior was allowed relatively unhindered was because Commodus had secluded himself in his private estates after yet another assassination attempt, this time by a soldier named Maternus. The latter had reportedly come from a disgruntled legion in the province of Gaul, which at this time was witnessing a lot of unrest, along with the German provinces next to it.   With Commodus removing himself further from public life, Cleander was provided with the opportunity to aggrandize himself without restraint. The other Praetorian Prefect, Atilius Aebutianus, was removed without contest, leaving Cleander the sole Prefect and the de facto ruler of the state.   He continued his corruption, selling public offices and alienating much of the aristocracy around him. As a result, when Rome was hit by the early signs of an impending famine in 190 CE, a magistrate responsible for the food supply pointed the angry and hungry mob towards Cleander, who he said was to blame.   Cleander was chased out of the city to Commodus’s private estate, where the people demanded the Prefect’s head. Commodus seemingly realized his mistake in allowing others to rule in his stead, had Cleander executed, and decided to again take up the mantle of emperorship, with notoriously disastrous results.   Commodus the Gladiator and God Sculpture of Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191-192 CE. Source: Capitoline Museum   When Commodus came back to the political fore, it was clear that he had grand, and perhaps insane, ambitions for his legacy. Much of his subsequent political agenda revolved around making himself the center of Roman religious, cultural, and social life in increasingly eccentric ways.   An event that seemingly accelerated this megalomania was the fire of Rome in 191/2 CE, which engulfed large parts of the city. Although Commodus acted reasonably quickly to address the problem, he also decided to use the opportunity to almost sacrilegiously recategorize Rome as a colony, renaming it after himself: Colonia Lucia Aurelia Commodiana.   To complement this great and obscene honor he had bestowed on himself, he added a number of mythical or divine titles to his nomenclature, including Amazonius, Herculius, and Exsuperatorius. In the process, he asserted that a new “Golden Age” was upon the Roman people, overseen by a divine ruler.   Statue of Jupiter, King of the Roman Gods, c. 150 CE. Source: Louvre   Indeed, the title “Exsuperatorius” most strikingly and absurdly associated him with Jupiter, king of the Roman Gods. To complement this array of elaborate titles, he was reported to appear always adorned with golden clothes befitting a god. He also began to dress up as Hercules, the eastern God Mithras, and the sun god Sol.   This establishment of a divine personality cult was propagated and propounded not only through his titles and clothing but also through coinage, statues, and architecture. Moreover, he changed the name of each month of the year to one of his own (now) twelve names, just as he renamed the fleets and legions of the Empire after himself as well.   To top all of this off, he famously decided to appear in the Colosseum dressed as Hercules, fighting staged battles and maiming victims. In the process, he had turned Rome into his personal playground, presenting himself as a divine ruler without equal or precedent.   Death and Legacy  The Emperor Commodus Leaving the Arena at the Head of the Gladiators, By Edwin Howland Blashfield, c. 1848-1936. Source: Hermitage Museum and Gardens in Norfolk, Virginia   As we have seen, such unrestrained self-indulgence naturally alienated many segments of society, who did not wish to endorse Commodus’s new “Golden Age” or his violent purges of the aristocracy. While many assassination attempts had failed, it seemed inevitable that one would eventually succeed.   As such, when the emperor’s mistress Marcia found a “kill list” with her name and the two Praetorian Prefects, Laetus and Eclectus, on it, they formed a preemptive plot. They decided that the best method would be to poison the emperor’s food, selecting New Year’s Eve, 192 CE, as the day to administer the poison.   However, the poison was not properly ingested as Commodus threw up most of his food, made vague threats, and then decided to take a bath. Not to be deterred, the three conspirators then decided to send Commodus’s wrestling partner, Narcissus, to finish the job. Creeping up on Commodus while he bathed, the wrestler strangled Commodus to death, ending his reign in a fittingly ignominious and violent manner.   Following his death, his memory was ordered to be expunged from all records and dedications, a process known as Damnatio Memoriae, as the Empire devolved into a protracted civil war. Even when order was eventually restored under Septimius Severus, the Empire never again reached the heights of Nerva-Antonine stability and prosperity. An example of Damnatio Memoriae, with an inscription naming Domitian partly erased, c. 96 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It is no surprise that “Commodus the Gladiator Emperor” is viewed so negatively as an “evil emperor.” Though some revisionist historians have attempted to reimagine Commodus as the victim of senatorial envy and intrigue, it is difficult to disregard the litany of crimes and absurd policies attributed to him.   To completely reverse his father’s policies at home and on the frontiers was bound to cause negative effects, just as his perverse attempts to establish himself as a living god were sure to cause controversy. When compared with his close predecessors, there were very few policies, whether judicial, economic, or military, that were particularly praiseworthy.   It is, therefore, safe to say that Commodus truly was a terrible emperor, and very possibly an insane one.

  Ridley Scott’s epic blockbuster Gladiator (2000), starring Russell Crowe, is a masterpiece of cinema. It has engaging characters, excellent cinematography, and an epic musical score that rightly deserves a place in the history of the silver screen. However, the principal attractions of the film are the riveting fight scenes against barbarian hordes and gladiatorial matches in the Colosseum. But how accurate are these scenes? Are they true to the actual history, or are they more spectacle than substance?   The Roman Army Roman Armor from the Arminius Revolt, 9 CE. Source: British Museum   The opening scene of Gladiator, set at the end of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, is the pitched Battle of Vindobona. It pits the Roman legions commanded by General Maximus against a horde of Germanic barbarians. Historically, Vindobona was a Roman military encampment in what is currently Vienna. There was no historic battle at this location, but the overall conflict did take place during the Marcomannic Wars, which pitted the Romans against a confederation of Germanic and Sarmatian tribes between 166 and 180 CE. Rome had already reached the extent of its territorial expansion and fought this war to hold on to their northern borders.   At first glance, the Roman military in the film appears quite good. They are armed and equipped with the heavy armor of lorica segmentata, which is made from bands of overlapping metal segments. It is unknown how extensive the use of this type of armor was, but its inclusion in the film is not inaccurate. It is also possible that the Romans would be protected by lorica hamata, or chain mail, which can be seen worn by some of the archers.   The other equipment is also relatively accurate, with emphasis on the uniformity of the Romans, which gives a sense of professionalism and order compared to the chaotic barbarians. One inaccuracy, however, is the Roman officers, specifically the centurions, who led the advance against the Germanic horde. Like all officers in the film, their helmets have crests to distinguish them from the lower ranks. However, a centurion’s crest was traversed rather than front to back, as was the case with higher-level officers.   The German Horde Battle scene from the column of Marcus Aurelius, c. late 2nd century CE. Source: X-Legio   It’s much harder to accurately assess the appearance of the German army, since primary sources are scarce. What is known is that they were not as well armed or equipped as their Roman adversaries, though they were by no means a rabble of unruly primitives that the movie suggests. The amount of armor used by the tribes is debatable, though certainly, the chieftains and those of higher social status would have access to chain mail. They would also have used plundered Roman equipment acquired during the 14-year-long conflict.   It is also reasonable to assume that the Germanic tribesmen would have used large oblong shields and spears, fighting in shield wall formations that bristled with spear points. They would not have had the discipline or uniformity of their Roman adversaries, but they would hardly have been the horde depicted in the film. Some of the Germans also wear horned helmets, which are not historical at all and have their origins in 19th-century operas.   This was probably a deliberate storytelling element by the filmmakers. Having the barbarians using captured Roman gear would have made telling the two sides apart that much more difficult for the viewer. More importantly, the differences in equipment, tactics, and organization play up the civilized vs savage trope common in media.   Preparations for Battle  Roman artillerymen depicted on Trajan’s Column, c. 2nd century CE. Source: St Andrews University   The film begins with General Maximus noticing a bird perched on a dead branch, which has a surprising historical parallel. The Romans were highly superstitious, especially before an impending battle. They were constantly on the lookout for portents from the gods, including noting the pattern of birds in flight. The scene then cuts to the general inspecting the Roman positions as the final preparations are taking place, including a large number of ballistas and catapults. This is the first inaccuracy.   The Romans did make extensive use of siege artillery, which was a vital part of their military arsenal. They were used to capture cities and fortresses and could be wielded with devastating effect. However, they were very cumbersome and could take hours to set up, and aiming and adjusting the range was a laborious task. This was fine against large, stationary targets like a city’s walls or towers, but useless against mobile formations of troops in the field, who would simply move out of the way if bracketed by a siege engine.   After the return of the headless Roman messenger, the Germans emerge from the trees, their willingness to fight apparent. They begin with their war cry, banging their weapons on their shields. This is accurate, though an interesting note is that the soundtrack for the war chant was lifted directly from the 1964 film Zulu, added as an homage to that classic movie. Historically, the Germans would have performed the Barritus, a war cry that started as a low hum that gradually increased in volume, the shields of the warriors amplifying the sound until the battlefield echoed with their chant. Later in Rome’s history, Rome adopted this practice due to the influx of Germanic troops into its armies.   The Battle of Vindobona Reconstruction of a Roman cavalryman. Source: Roman Army Museum, UK   After a few more preparations, including a rousing speech, Maximus signals his men to “unleash hell.” Moments later, the artillery and ranks of archers opened up on the Germans, striking with a barrage of incendiary projectiles. This is not something that would have been done for a number of reasons. Fire arrows and other projectiles would not have been used historically, at least not in this context. If used at all, they would have been utilized to set buildings on fire during a siege, but a normal unlit arrow would have been more effective against troops in the field. They were probably added for a combination of the visual spectacle and because they resemble tracer rounds in modern firearms, which makes seeing them on film easier.   The Romans in the film also placed much more emphasis on archers than they would have done historically. Archers were used by the Romans, but those men would be auxiliaries, non-citizen soldiers who fought for Rome, and would have been much fewer in number. They would also have used slingers, which are absent from the film. They would have been used in a skirmisher role, advancing ahead of the main body of troops to break up the enemy formation.   The Opening Battle: Infantry vs Cavalry Roman scutum, c. early 3rd century CE. Source: British Museum   With the Germans in fiery disarray, the order to advance is given while Maximus leads his cavalry on a flanking charge. The first issue with this is the cavalry. Like the archers, the cavalry was primarily made up of auxiliaries, in this case, made up of German or Gallic troops. They would be posted on the flanks of the army and were used for scouting and to threaten the enemy flanks. They made up a small number of Rome’s total strength. Furthermore, historically, the Germans had a cavalry advantage over the Romans, though, in the film, they don’t have a single horseman. Another inaccuracy is the use of stirrups, which had not been invented yet, though this is an understandable anachronism given the safety concerns of riding a horse without stirrups.   The Roman infantry then began their advance. This is the key to Rome’s success: a steady push by heavy infantry in disciplined formations. They move in strict lines overseen by their centurions who lead from the front. The only nitpick with their formation is that they should be advancing in formations three ranks deep, not two. They are then shot at by German archers and adopt the famous testudo, or tortoise formation, with the front ranks closing their shields and the rear ranks holding theirs above their heads to form a roof. The Romans did adopt this formation, though it was almost exclusively used when assaulting enemy fortifications. In an open-field battle, the testudo limits mobility and vision, leaving infantry vulnerable in close-quarter fighting. If attacked by enemy archers at this range, they would maintain their line formations and simply raise their shields as they closed the distance.   The Opening Battle: Discipline vs Frenzy Roman pilum heads. Source: British Museum   At this point the Germans, worked up into a battle frenzy, charge into the Romans in a disorganized mass. The Romans receive the charge, and almost immediately after both armies meet, the entire scene descends into a swirling melee without any order. We are soon joined by Maximus and his cavalry, who only add to the confusion. In reality, the Romans were as successful as they were by maintaining strict discipline and keeping in formation during even the most brutal and chaotic battles. It was this disciplined approach to warfare that allowed the Romans to dominate even when outnumbered or otherwise outmatched.   Likewise, the Germans would have been in formation, and while they would not have been as disciplined as the Romans, they would have formed a shield wall with bristling spear points. Staying in line was vital to survival on a battlefield, and rushing in a disorganized mass was tantamount to a death sentence. They may even have waited in place and allowed the Romans to come to them, which would maintain their lines, but would be much less spectacular to watch on film.   The Romans also display some Hollywood tactics, not throwing their pilum. These were specially designed javelins with a long iron shaft and a heavy wooden handle. Each legionary would have two, throwing them as they closed the distance with the enemy. The narrow iron shaft would puncture shields and armor, and the weight of the wooden handle would cause the metal to bend, causing it to become stuck in the enemy’s shield. Because of the bent shaft, it could not be removed, forcing the warrior to choose between fighting with an unwieldy pilum in their shield, weighing it down, or discarding the shield altogether. In the film, the legionaries do not throw their pilum; instead, they use them as ineffectual spears and receive the German charge with their gladius still in their sheaths.   Overall, the opening battle is visually spectacular but historically leaves much to be desired.   The Colosseum Fights In Pollice Verso, by Jean-Leon Gerome, 1872. Source: Phoenix Art Museum   After betrayal by the emperor Commodus, Maximus is forced into slavery and becomes a gladiator, fighting in several provincial shows before finally competing in the Colosseum, more accurately called the Flavian Amphitheater. Once in Rome, the first major fight was a reenactment of the battle of Zama, a legendary victory against Rome’s most hated enemy, the Carthaginians. This is actually historically true. The Colosseum would commonly host reenactments of Rome’s past battles and mythological battles in the same way that people today will watch a historical epic. On several occasions, the Colosseum was flooded and a mock naval battle, a Naumachia, took place.   In the next fight, Maximus is pitted against a retired gladiator in a one-on-one match, which ends with Maximus sparing his opponent’s life. This is also accurate. Contrary to popular belief, most gladiatorial matches did not end in the death of one of the combatants. More often than not, mercy was shown, and the gladiator would live to fight another day. Training someone to be a gladiator was a time-consuming and expensive process, and it was economically unfeasible to lose a trained fighter at the end of each match. Over their careers, fighters would rack up win and loss records, which the citizens of Rome would analyze and compare. Each gladiator had their own supporters and fans, no different from modern boxers or MMA fighters.   Stone relief depicting two female gladiators, c. 1st or 2nd century CE. Source: British Museum   During that fight, Maximus is ambushed by tigers, which leap out from trap doors hidden in the Colosseum’s sand. This is also historically accurate. The wooden floor of the Colosseum did have trap doors, and the underbelly of the amphitheater had a maze of corridors leading to lifts and ramps. These can be used for dramatic effect, with doors opening to reveal wild animals, other gladiators, props, or whatever else the editor of the games thought would be appreciated by the audience.   What was lacking from the film’s gladiatorial matches were the diverse types of gladiators the Romans utilized. Rather than generic warriors, there were different gladiatorial types, each with their own weapons and fighting style. Some were exaggerated versions of foes the Romans faced on the battlefield, such as the Samnite, the Thraex or Thracian, or the Hoplomachus, a stylized version of the Greek hoplite. Others included the Murmillo and the net-wielding Retiarius. Each would be trained for a specific fighting style and would be paired off against one another. For example, the Murmillo, who was more heavily armored with a large shield and a gladius short sword, was often pitted against the Thraex, who carried the curved sica sword and small shield but was much more mobile.   Commodus in the Arena Marble bust of Commodus as Hercules, c. 2nd Century CE. Source: Musei in Comune Roma   One final inaccuracy is the emperor Commodus. The film shows his obsession with gladiatorial games, which culminates in the final fight in the arena between himself and Maximus. If anything, this downplays the emperor’s participation. Commodus was not only a fan of gladiatorial matches but scandalized Rome by actively participating in them. He routinely fought in the Colosseum, his opponents fighting with dull weapons to prevent any injury to the emperor. He routinely fought wild animals, shooting them with a bow. Commodus claimed that he was the reincarnation of Hercules and used his victories in the games as proof of his fighting prowess.   His death in the arena is not only historically inaccurate, but also out of character. He would never place himself in a position to be killed by an opponent. Further, while this never happened historically, should he actually be threatened with death or serious injury in the arena, the match would have been called off, and the praetorian guards would have no doubt dispatched the gladiator in question.   Overall, while the film Gladiator is a masterpiece of cinema, rightly deserving a place as one of the great epic movies of all time, the historical accuracy, including the fight scenes, have grains of truth that are buried under cinematic spectacle.