From ignorant Roman generals to over-ambitious American lieutenants, history is full of soldiers who made catastrophic mistakes. Conflicts as relevant as World War Two and as ancient as the Second Punic War were defined by these blunders and their consequences. Some were caused by underestimating the enemy, others by failing to understand the battlefield terrain, but all brought disaster for these commanders and their men. Here are ten of the worst mistakes in military history: 1. The Romans at the Battle of Cannae In 216 BC Hannibal Barca famously crossed the Alps into Italy with only 40,000 soldiers. A vast Roman army of around 80,000 men was raised to oppose him, led by the two Roman consuls. At Cannae the majority of this huge force were lost owing to a disastrous error on the part of their Roman commanders. The Roman generals’ plan at Cannae was to advance and punch through Hannibal’s thin battle-line, putting faith in their much larger infantry force. Hannibal, in contrast, had prepared a complex strategy. He first ordered his infantry to feign withdrawals in the centre of his formation, drawing the eager Romans towards his crescent-shaped battle-line. The Romans, unsuspecting, thought they had the Carthaginians on the run and drove their forces deep into this crescent. Hannibal’s cavalry then drove off the horsemen who protected the Roman flank, and circled around the back of the huge Roman force, charging their rear. The Roman commanders did not realise their mistake in time: the Carthaginian infantry’s crescent formation now surrounded them at the front, and Hannibal’s cavalry was driving into their rear. Roman soldiers were so tightly packed in this Carthaginian trap that they were unable even to swing their swords. The Death of Aemilius Pallus at Cannae. Image Credit: Public Domain Around 60,000 Romans perished owing to their generals’ over-confidence, including Aemilius Paullus, one of the Roman consuls. It ranks alongside the the Battle of the Somme as one of the bloodiest days in western military history. 2. Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus and his Roman legions were utterly crushed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae. Crassus made the mistake of failing to recognise the importance of terrain and the skills of the Parthian horse-archers. Crassus had marched 40,000 legionaries and auxiliary troops into the desert in pursuit of the Parthian army. He ignored the advice of his allies and advisers who had proposed staying in the mountains or near the Euphrates to reduce the danger from the Parthian cavalry. Weakened by thirst and heat, the Romans were attacked by the Parthians deep in the desert. Misjudging the size of the Parthian army, Crassus ordered his men to form an immobile square which was devastated by the Parthian horse archers. When Crassus had his men pursue the enemy they were charged by cataphracts, the Parthian heavy cavalry. Crassus’ many blunders resulted in his own death, and that of his son and 20,000 Roman soldiers. He also lost several Legionary Eagles, the Roman military standards, which were not recovered for over thirty years. 3. The Romans at the Teutoburg Forest Across their long military history, few defeats left such an impact on the Romans as that of Varus’ legions at the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. On hearing news of the disaster, the Emperor Augustus famously cried aloud to himself repeatedly, ‘Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!’. Varus first made the error of trusting Arminius, a Germanic chieftain serving as his advisor. When Arminius informed him that a revolt had begun nearby, Varus marched his army through the Teutoburg Forest to deal with the problem. Varus vastly underestimated the organisation of the Germanic tribes and their ability to use the local terrain; he did not reconnoitre the forest or even march his army in combat formation. As the Romans marched through the dense woodland, they were suddenly ambushed by a hidden and well-disciplined Germanic army led by Arminius himself. Only a few thousand Romans escaped, and Varus himself was forced to commit suicide during the battle. Arminius’ victory prevented the Roman empire from ever establishing a firm grip on Germania. 4. The French at the Battle of Agincourt On the morning of 25 October 1415, the French army at Agincourt would have been expecting a famous victory. Their army greatly outnumbered the English host under Henry V, and they had a much larger force of knights and men-at-arms. The French, however, made a ruinous mistake, miscalculating the accuracy, range and firing rate of the English longbows. During the battle, the French cavalry attempted to charge the English archers, but were unable to pass the sharpened stakes which protected them. Meanwhile the French men-at-arms moved slowly over the muddy ground separating them from the English. In these conditions, the entire French army was hugely vulnerable to the constant hail of arrows from the English longbows. The French were easily beaten back when they finally pushed through the arrows to Henry V’s lines. Their mistakes resulted in the French losing around ten times the number of English casualties. 5. The Austrians at the Battle of Karánsebes On the night of 21-22 September 1788, during the Austro-Turkish War, the Austrian army under Emperor Joseph II defeated itself in a major friendly-fire incident. Emperor Joseph II and his Soldiers. Image Credit: Public Domain Clashes between Austrian troops began when the Austrian Hussars who were serving as scouts refused to share their schnapps with some infantry. After one of the drunken Hussars fired a shot, the infantry opened fire in return. As the two groups fought, they heard shouts of ‘Turks! Turks!’, leading them to believe the Ottomans were nearby. The Hussars fled back into the Austrian camp, and a confused officer ordered his artillery to fire upon them. In the darkness, the Austrians believed the Ottoman cavalry were attacking them unawares and turned on each other in terror. Over 1,000 Austrians were killed during the night, and Joseph II ordered a general withdrawal on account of the chaos. When the Ottomans actually arrived two days later, they took Karánsebes without a fight. 6. Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia The invasion force which Napoleon mustered for his campaign against Russia was the largest army ever assembled in the history of warfare. Over 685,000 men from France and Germany crossed the Neman River and began the invasion. After Napoleon’s failure to force the Russians to surrender and lengthy retreat, his army would suffer 500,000 casualties. Napoleon falsely believed the Russians would deploy their army in a conclusive battle, but instead they withdrew deeper into Russian territory. As the Russians retreated they destroyed crops and villages, making it impossible for Napoleon to supply his huge host. Napoleon managed to inflict an inconclusive defeat on the Russians and seize Moscow, but even the capital had been destroyed by the withdrawing army. After waiting in vain for Emperor Alexander I to surrender, Napoleon fell back from Moscow. As winter approached, snows slowed the French army, who suffered from starvation and desertion as the Russians harried their long retreat. 7. The Charge of the Light Brigade Immortalised by Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s poem, this British light cavalry charge during the Battle of Balaclava is one of the most renowned military mistakes in history. After a miscommunication in the chain of command, the Light Brigade was ordered on a frontal assault against a large Russian artillery battery. As the Light Brigade charged between the Fedyukhin Heights and the Causeway Heights (the so-called ‘Valley of Death’), they faced devastating fire from three sides. They reached the artillery but were driven back, receiving more fire during their retreat. The Charge of the Light Brigade. Image Credit: Public Domain In the end, the miscommunication caused nearly 300 casualties in a matter of minutes. 8. Custer at the Battle of the Little Bighorn The Battle of the Little Bighorn is one of the most well-known engagements in America’s military history. For decades after the battle Lieutenant-Colonel George Custer was considered an American hero for his Last Stand against the forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. Modern historians have documented Custer’s various mistakes before and during the battle, which led to a decisive victory for the tribal war leaders Crazy Horse and Chief Gall. Notably, Custer seriously misjudged the number of enemies camped before the Little Big Horn River, ignoring his Native scouts’ reports that the encampment was the largest they had ever seen. ‘Custer’s Last Stand’ by Edgar Samuel Paxson. Image Credit: Public Domain Custer was also supposed to wait for Brigadier General Alfred Terry and Colonel John Gibson’s troops to arrive before launching an attack. Instead, Custer decided to make his move immediately, afraid that the Sioux and Cheyennes would escape if he waited. Custer was forced to retreat his own battalion to a nearby hill, where they all perished facing repeated assaults. 9. Hitler’s Invasion of the Soviet Union Operation Barbarossa, Hitler’s failed invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, was one of the most significant military campaigns in history. Following the invasion, Germany was engaged in a war on two fronts which stretched their forces to breaking point. Image credit: Bundesarchiv / Commons. Much like Napoleon before him, Hitler underestimated the resolve of the Russians and the difficulties of supplying his forces for the Russian terrain and weather. He believed that his army could seize Russia in only a few months, so his men were not prepared for a harsh Russian winter. Following the German defeat in the largest battle in history at Stalingrad, Hitler was forced to redeploy troops from the western front to Russia, weakening his hold on Europe. The Axis Powers suffered nearly 1,000,000 casualties during the campaign, which proved a turning point in the Second World War. 10. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor The USS Arizona burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Image Credut: Public Domain In the early hours of 7 December 1941 the Japanese launched a pre-emptive strike against the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. The Japanese intended the attack to be a preventative action, hoping to stop the American Pacific Fleet from halting Japanese expansion into Southeast Asia. Instead, the strike drove America to join the Allies and enter the Second World War. Initially the Pearl Harbor attack, which coincided with other strikes on American naval bases, was a success for the Japanese. 2,400 American personnel were killed, four battleships were sank and many more suffered severe damage. However, the Japanese failed to deliver a decisive blow, and American popular opinion turned from isolationism towards involvement in the war. Over the coming years America not only helped turn the tide of the conflict in Europe, but also ended the Japanese Empire in the Pacific.

2000 years ago, deep in the forests of Germany, a Roman army walked into a trap. It had been set by the Germanic warlord Arminius, a man they thought was their friend, and resulted in a catastrophic Roman defeat remembered as the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. In History Hit documentary Rome’s Disaster, Tristan Hughes heads to Germany to investigate some of the worst days in Roman military history which unfolded in 9 AD. At the Varus Battle Museum, named for the humbled Roman commander, Tristan gets hands-on with archaeology from the battle. Sign up to watch As the Romans fell, the battle sites were looted by their attackers who picked the fields for valuables. Fortunately for us, some Roman artefacts were left behind. “We have about 5-6,000 Roman finds, 2,000 coins, a lot of bones,” explains museum managing director Stefan Burmeister. “We have recovered about an area of 50 square kilometres. Most finds come from the core area here in the museum park. We do a lot of excavations and every time we open the soil, it’s like a spring. Things come up.” Among the human remains is the top of a human skull with a large hole and indications of a mortal sword blow. Their identity, however, remains anonymous – for now. Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg ForestImage Credit: History Hit “We have lots of bones. Of course, we know they are all male, very strong stature, between 20 and 40 years of age. We just started a genomic project, and perhaps in one or two years time, we will know more about the ancestry and if they come as Romans or come from the Mediterranean, or if it’s a Germanic warrior.” Getting closer to the Battle of Teutoburg Despite lacking concrete proof that the area near the museum was the site of the famous battle, there is good evidence. “We have lots of coins, 2,000 coins, and they all tell a story and they bring us close to the event,” says Burmeister. One coin in particular, made from copper and perhaps the value of a glass of wine, displays a unique counter-stamp. “This is the Varus counter-stamp. It’s a V-A-R. And this was stamped in the time when Varus was commander of the Legion of the Rhine. So this must have been stamped in the years 7 to 9 AD.” Other, more precious, personal items have also been recovered from the battlefield, including two golden finger rings with high quality, semi-precious stones. Both depict mythological themes. One depicts Silenus, a god of drunkenness, and the other the winged horse Pegasus. Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg ForestImage Credit: History Hit These styles of rings were worn by Roman men and women. In modern terms, however, these rings correspond to the smallest female sizes. “We know that in the baggage train, the soldiers had their families with them, women and children,” explains Burmeister. “And I think with these two rings, we have good evidence of these families accompanying the army.” Not only were these rings originally crafted for someone originating from thousands of miles away. They highlight how women and children were present at the battle as well as fighting men. The rings also suggest that they got caught up in the carnage, too. “They were caught, perhaps killed, we don’t know,” says Burmeister. “In the bones we only have men. We know from other historians that 30-40 years later, the Romans bought the last survivors.” From human remains to gold rings, the archaeology unearthed at Kalkriese is providing a huge range of information about the battle. But perhaps one artefact personifies this massacre more than any other. A Roman cavalry mask made from iron and coated in silver and depicting a human face, used more for parades than actual battle, is a unique survivor from Teutoburg. We’ll never know what happened to the Roman who wore the mask, but more likely than not he suffered a similar fate to many of his comrades, either killed or captured by the Germans during the later stages of this battle. Watch Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest by signing up to History Hit. Sign up to watch

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