by Martin Armstrong, Armstrong Economics: The U.S. economy added fewer-than-expected new jobs last month because most economists still refuse to comprehend that there is such a thing as the business cycle. Here we have the Economic Confidence Model I explained, which I discovered while researching at the Firestone Library at Princeton University. That is NOT included in Socrates, in […]

  In ancient Rome, the priestesses of the goddess Vesta were known as the Vestal Virgins. This was an elite group of young women from important Roman families chosen before puberty to join the college of celibate devotees for the next 30 years.   Their existence was seen as essential for protecting the city of Rome itself and ensuring its ongoing prosperity. This gave the Vestals incredible status in Roman society, independent of traditional male power, which was unheard of for women in most parts of the ancient world. However, it also meant that the punishment for breaking a vow was incredibly harsh because it put Rome itself at risk.   1. The Vestals Were an Ancient Order Herm of a Vestal Virgin, by Antonia Canova, 1822. Source: The Getty Museum   The Vestal Virgins were one of Rome’s few female priesthoods and, through legend, could trace their roots back to before the founding of Rome itself. According to Roman historical tradition, before the foundation of Rome, the Vestals already existed in the Latin city of Alba Longa. A virgin daughter of the king of that city was forced by a usurper to become a Vestal Virgin.   When women entered the priesthood, they were freed from the patria potestas (patriarchal power) of their family and sworn to chastity. This meant that the princess could no longer pose a threat to the usurper by creating a marriage alliance or giving birth to heirs.   However, according to legend, the gods had other plans. The god Mars impregnated the girl with twin boys, Romulus and Remus, who founded the city of Rome in 753 BCE. Tradition says that it was Romulus’ successor as king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, who built the Temple of Vesta in Rome and established the priesthood of the Vestal Virgins there.   He initially appointed two Vestals to care for the temple, but this number was increased to four by King Servius Tullius, who was also miraculously born of a Vestal, via the god Vulcan, in another pre-Christian example of a virgin birth. Their number was increased to six serving Vestals by the time of the Roman Republic.   2. The Vestals Nurtured the Sacred Hearth of Rome Temple of Vesta, by Alessandro Sanquirico, 1818. Source: New York Public Library   Religion in ancient Rome centered around the hearth in each home, where the ancestors of the family (parentes), the guardians of the household (lares familiares), and the guardian spirit of the head of the household (the genius) were worshiped alongside other family and tutelary deities. The Romans believed that they had a reciprocal relationship with their gods and that prosperity depended on proper veneration.   The Temple of Vesta represented the hearth of Rome itself. The most important duty of the Vestal Virgins was to ensure that the hearth always remained lit. If the flame went out, it was seen as a sign that Rome had lost the support of the gods. The population would have to conduct extraordinary religious rites to re-establish their relationship with the gods. If the flame went out due to the negligence of a priestess, she was beaten in penance, and the flame relit through a series of rituals.   Gaius Octavius Caesar, the heir to Julius Caesar, established himself as the first emperor of Rome under the name Augustus in 27 BCE. He was emperor in all but name, using the titles princeps (first among equals) and pater patriae (father of the fatherland) rather than the titles rex (king) or imperator (emperor), which were both vilified in Roman society at the time.   Augustus restored the rights, prestige, and functions of the Vestal Virgins, which had been diminished over the previous decades of civil war. He also gave them his own home to live in, turning over the worship of his household deities to the Vestals. This made Augustus’ household deities also gods of Rome. This was one of the many things that Augustus did to establish his power without taking the title of rex.   3. Vestals Were Buried Alive for Breaking Their Vows The Vestal, by Filippo Pistrucci, c. 1830. Source: The British Museum   While the most important job of the Vestals was to attend the hearth flame, arguably even more important was maintaining their virginity. When they became a Vestal, their body no longer belonged to them, or their father. They were placed under the authority of the Pontifex Maximus, Rome’s chief priest, and their bodies belonged to Rome itself. As long as their bodies remained unpenetrated, the walls of Rome would remain intact. This also meant that the Vestals could not leave Rome, and they were buried within the confines of the city, which was a great honor not afforded to many men or women.   The bodies of the Vestal Virgins were sacrosanct, and it was considered blasphemy to injure a Vestal. When they moved through the city, they were accompanied by a lictor, a bodyguard who ensured their right of way and could kill anyone who tried to interfere with her.   Having sex with a Vestal was, of course, interfering, so men discovered to have slept with a Vestal were publicly beaten to death by the Pontifex Maximus. The Vestal also had to be punished, but her blood could still not be spilled. Instead, a living tomb was created for her underground within the walls of the city. She was led there and buried alive in a small room with provisions for a few days. She had to appear to go willingly and would soon die “bloodlessly” of “natural causes.”   4. The Vestals Embodied the Maiden, Mother, and Crone School of the Vestals, by Hector Leroux, 1880. Source: New York Public Library   While there were six serving Vestals, the priesthood was much larger. Initiate Vestals were recruited between the ages of six and ten. They had to be the daughter of a free Roman citizen, have two living parents, and have no physical, mental, or moral defects. A long list of candidates was put together by the Pontifex Maximus, and then the girls who would join the order were chosen by lot.   While it was a great honor to have a daughter chosen as a Vestal Virgin, it was also a sacrifice. She was removed from the family and could no longer participate in marriage contracts or give birth to heirs. Initially, only the daughters of patricians (aristocrats) could be chosen, but as fewer patrician fathers were willing to give up their children, the daughters of plebians (commoners) were also chosen. At some points in history, even the daughters of freedmen (ex-slaves) could serve as Vestals.   Vestal Virgins performing a sacrifice, by Pietro Aquila, c. 1692. Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art   When they entered the priesthood, the girls swore to give 30 years of their lives to the gods and to remain chaste for those three decades. They spent roughly the first ten years in training, learning how to complete their duties from older Vestals. They would then serve as active Vestals for ten years, before joining the team of older Vestals, responsible for training and leading the younger ones. There was also a chief Vestal Virgin, the Virgo Vestalis Maxima, who was responsible for overseeing the activities of all the priestesses, under the guidance of the Pontifex Maximus.   If a Vestal died in service and a woman of appropriate age needed to be recruited, women could present themselves to the chief Vestal. She would make a choice based on their virtue, but they did not have to be virgins. One such instance occurred in 19 CE, when two senators presented their daughter for selection. The emperor Tiberius consoled the one who missed out by giving her a one million sesterces dowry (about $10 million in today’s money).   5. The Vestals Were Feminine Icons With Masculine Privileges Albinus and the Vestal Virgins, by Jean-Baptiste Broebas, c. 1700. Source: Philadelphia Museum of Art   After their 30 years of service, a Vestal was free to retire. She would retire a wealthy woman with a generous pension from the state. Moreover, unlike most Roman women, she was independent, and not under the authority of her father, oldest male relative, or husband. She could own property, write a will, and even testify in court. This, along with the universal respect that she enjoyed as an ex-Vestal, made her a woman apart.   Once she retired, a Vestal was also free to marry, but there is little evidence that any of them did. Having lived as an independent woman for the last 30 years, making herself the property of a man was probably not an attractive prospect. Many Vestals instead chose to renew their vows of chastity.   Serving Vestals also had exceptional privileges in Rome. In addition to their bodies being sacrosanct, they received ringside seats at the public games, including gladiatorial contests. They could arrive at these shows in a carpentum, a kind of enclosed chariot like those used by Roman generals when celebrating a triumph.   Vestals also had the power to pardon the convicted. It was famously the Vestals who saved Julius Caesar when Sulla included the ambitious young man in his proscriptions. While many Vestal privileges might seem like simple “trappings” of power, they reflect the respect that these women enjoyed within a strongly militaristic and patriarchal society.   6. The Vestals Were Involved in Lots of Scandals Roman Age female bust, thought to be Julia Aquilia Severa, c. 221. Source: Fondazione Torlonia   The history of the Vestal Virgins is not without its controversies. Aside from the multiple claims of immaculate conception, multiple Vestals were also killed for breaking their vows, some because they did and others on trumped-up charges that were politically motivated.   A Vestal called Licinia was supposedly courted by her own kinsman Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome in the 1st century BCE. The pair were later acquitted of any misconduct when it was determined that Crassus was actually after some valuable property that she possessed.   Another Vestal, Rubria, was said to have been assaulted by Emperor Nero, who violated her body and the security of Rome. Is it a coincidence that Rome later suffered a terrible fire, believed to have been started by Nero himself?   But by far the biggest Vestal Virgin scandal we know of was when the Vestal Julia Aquilia Severa, married Elagabalus, emperor in the early 3rd century CE. Whether the two consummated their marriage or it was done as a religious show is unclear.   The Roses of Elagabalus, by Lawrence Tadema-Alma, 1888. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Elagabalus was a devotee of the Arab-Roman sun god Elagabal and served as a priest in his cult until the death of his cousin, Caracalla, which saw him become emperor at the age of just 14. He promoted the worship of this foreign god in Rome. Julia Aquilia Severa was also a devotee of Elagabal. Their marriage may have been meant as a symbolic union between the sun god and Vesta, making them the two most important gods in Rome.   The pair originally married in 220 CE but separated due to political pressure in 221. Elagabalus then married another woman, Annia Faustina, before divorcing her and returning to live with his Vestal wife. They stayed together until he was assassinated in 222 but had no children. While some sources suggest that Julia Aquilia Severa was forced to marry the mad emperor and violated, gossip of the day also suggested that Elagabalus was gay and more interested in his wife’s chariot driver than his wife. The true story has been lost to the historical tabloids.   7. The Retirement of the Vestals Preceded the Fall of Rome The Course of Empire: Destruction, by Thomas Cole, 1836. Source: New York Historical Society   Like many other Roman priesthoods, the Vestal Virgins began to lose their importance with the widespread conversion to Christianity that officially started with Constantine granting Christianity legal status in 313 CE. In previous centuries, Christianity was viewed as illegal in Rome because it was monotheistic. It wasn’t a problem that some people chose to worship the god of the Jews in this new cult (new cults emerged in Rome all the time), the problem was that they refused to worship the other Roman gods. Since the Romans believed that their prosperity was directly linked to the favor of the gods and depended on their proper worship, this was a serious threat.   But as Christianity spread, it was soon the old priesthoods that lost their importance. Some suggested that this had a detrimental impact on Rome. In the 4th century CE, a Roman urban prefect called Symmachus wrote that he believed that cutting funding to the Vestals had directly led to bad harvests and public famine as they lost the favor of the goddess.   Nevertheless, the college was disbanded in 382 CE, when Emperor Gratian confiscated its funds. Is it a coincidence that not long after this the walls of Rome were violated for the first time in centuries?   In its later history, the Roman Empire was split into two, the Western Empire, governed from Rome (and sometimes other cities), and the Eastern Empire governed from Constantinople. Thus, Rome lost its status as the most important city in the empire. It was also sacked by the Goths in 410 CE, sacked by the Vandals in 455 CE, and the Western Empire officially fell in 476 CE. Was this all because Rome lost the favor of Vesta?

An icon of American history, George Washington is largely remembered as an indomitable leader who took the new United States through a bloody revolution and into the initial phases of countryhood. Regardless of his skill as a military leader and politician, it simply wasn’t possible for Washington to meet all of these demands singularly. He was supported by a number of men and a particularly important woman, who helped him stay the course and make decisions that would not only affect his life but thousands of new Americans in his time and for generations to come.   1. Alexander Hamilton Portrait of Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull, 1806. Source: National Archives   Before he stood on Washington’s side as a military aide and then cabinet member, Alexander Hamilton’s early days were challenging. He was born in Nevis, a Caribbean island ruled by the British. Unfortunately, his unmarried parents didn’t provide Alexander with a stable childhood, as his father abandoned the family, and his mother died before Hamilton reached adolescence.   However, the enterprising Hamilton was determined to find success and supported himself by working as a clerk for a local shipping company. Several upstanding members of the community observed Hamilton’s skills and intelligence and created a fund to pay for the young man’s education in the American colonies. He arrived in New York in 1772, completed his preparatory education, and later attended King’s College.   Wood engraving of Hamilton by Timothy Cole, 1922. Source: National Gallery of Art, Washington DC   Unfortunately, Hamilton’s education was interrupted as he left school at the outbreak of the American Revolution. He joined a local militia group and worked his way up to captain. It is unknown when the young soldier first attracted the attention of General Washington, but it may have been during the army’s retreat from New York.   In 1777, Captain Hamilton was invited to join Washington’s staff as an aide-de-camp and promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. The pair worked well together despite their opposing personalities. Hamilton was a welcome addition to the General’s military “family,” regardless of his desire to be on the battlefield instead. The two men had a brief dispute in 1781, and Hamilton temporarily left the General’s staff. However, he would return a short time later, eagerly accepting the field assignment he’d desperately wanted.   Lin Manuel-Miranda returned Hamilton’s story to international fame with his musical Hamilton in 2015. Source: Joan Marcus   After the war, Hamilton returned to New York to pass the bar and start a law practice. It wasn’t long before Washington, now the country’s first president, tapped Hamilton to join his staff that would become known as the cabinet. As the country’s first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton worked alongside his mentor, the former general, to navigate the early years of the country and its operation. Though they were very different, they were said to bring out the best in one another and had common goals of a united nation with an effective, efficient government. Hamilton would be brought down in an infamous duel in 1804, outliving his mentor by only five years.   2. William “Billy” Lee This John Trumbull portrait of Washington, painted in 1780, also includes Billy Lee in the background. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   In 1768, Washington purchased two young men to supplement his current holdings of enslaved people. One of these brothers, William, called “Billy” by Washington, would come to play a vital role in the future general’s daily life. Billy became Washington’s valet. He spent almost every waking hour at Washington’s side, doing everything from helping him dress to delivering messages and ensuring the general was ready for meetings or other engagements.   Throughout the Revolution, Billy remained at Washington’s side, maintaining the general’s papers and keeping essential tools such as his spyglass at the ready. The two became the closest they ever had during the war, as they were together virtually day and night for seven years. Some claim that during this time and with their close interactions, Lee helped Washington’s opinions on slavery evolve, though Washington would not manumit any of the people in his holdings until after his 1799 death.   Washington & Billy Lee in a 1780 lithograph by Noel Le Mire. Source: Morris-Jumel Mansion, New York   Lee gained celebrity status due to his proximity to Washington. He was described as athletic and an excellent horseman. He married a free Black woman in Philadelphia during the Revolution and requested his wife be transported to Washington’s home at Mount Vernon after the war.   Washington gave his permission, but there is no record of Lee’s wife, Margaret Thomas, in the Mount Vernon archives. Due to knee injuries he sustained in an accident in the mid-1780s, Lee was unable to continue serving as Washington’s valet and was sent to work in a shoe-making shop at Mount Vernon. Lee was the only enslaved person freed immediately upon Washington’s death, and Washington ordered he receive a $30 annual salary for the remainder of his life. Still, he remained at the estate until his death in 1810 and is believed to have been buried in the enslaved cemetery there.   3. The Marquis de Lafayette Marquis de Lafayette in bronze by Raul Josset, 1947 photo by Caitlin Martin. Source: Association for Public Art   Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Motier, better known by his title, Marquis de Lafayette, was a French nobleman who was inspired by the American colonial cause. He volunteered on the Patriot side of the American Revolution and was given the rank of Major General. He helped gain French financial support for the war, and he and Washington bonded immediately.   Lafayette spent thousands on supplies for his soldiers, who were sorely under-outfitted by the fledgling Congress. He and Washington grew closer all the time, with personal writings demonstrating mutual love and admiration. They remained close friends upon the conclusion of the war and Lafayette’s return to France, with Lafayette naming his only son George Washington Lafayette.   The Marquis assumed command of the French National Guard in 1789 and played an important role in the French Revolution. He was present at the famed storming and destruction of the Bastille and sent Washington the Bastille’s key as a gift. It is still displayed at Mount Vernon today.   4. John Laurens John Laurens portrait by Charles Wilson Peale, 1780. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Washington DC   Born the son of a wealthy plantation owner in South Carolina, John “Jack” Laurens was nowhere near America when the Revolution broke out, as he was studying law in England. However, in 1776, he set sail for home, determined to participate in the war. He volunteered to join Washinton’s staff as an aide-de-camp, quickly proving himself valuable with his fluency in French and friendliness with the other staff members.   Like Hamilton, Laurens was eager to make his mark on the field but was known to be somewhat impulsive in his military endeavors. He was wounded, though not severely, in the Battle of Germantown in the autumn of 1777.   Laurens was deeply loyal to his supervising officer, fighting a duel with Major General Charles Lee after the latter had slandered Washington in 1778.   Laurens was unique among many of his contemporaries in that he was an abolitionist, deeply influenced by literature he had encountered while studying in England. He petitioned Congress to allow him to create a regiment made up of former slaves. Though his request was granted, reluctance among the southern planter class prevented him from raising the battalion.   Germantown Battle, Chews House, engraving by Rawdon, Wright & Harch based on a drawing by Koeltner. Source: National Archives   Laurens was briefly taken prisoner but returned to the battlefield, playing a crucial role in the British defeat and outlining the terms of surrender. However, one of the last battles of the Revolution, a minor skirmish outside of Charleston, would prove to be Laurens’ end. He was fatally shot just weeks before the final withdrawal of British troops.   5. Martha Washington A young Martha Washington. Source: Museums at Washington & Lee Universities   At just 26 years old, Martha Dandridge Custis would find herself widowed, owner of a luxurious estate with two young children. Since Martha was financially independent, she was determined that her next marriage would be a love match. Her availability became the topic of much social discussion, and many suitors were vying for her attention. One of these young men was George Washington, one year younger than Martha, who first visited Mrs. Custis in March 1758.   Within months, the two were planning their wedding. Martha and her children, who had become legal wards of Washington, moved to the Washington family estate in 1759. Though the two would not have any children of their own, they raised Martha’s two children and eventually four grandchildren at Mount Vernon.   The Washington Family by Edward Savage. Source: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association   Martha assumed a more public role with the advent of the Revolution, and the two essentially became America’s first power couple. She represented her husband at social events and engagements. Fighting in those days generally ceased during the winters, and Mrs. Washington joined her husband at his winter encampments.   Although Washington left Mount Vernon during the war and did not return for six years, Martha and George were able to spend about half of that time together. When he wasn’t working, she was at his side at places like Valley Forge and Philadelphia.   Martha was a sounding board for her husband and often helped with secretarial tasks. While Washington completed his duties, Martha spent time with other officer’s wives in camp. They aided in the care of wounded soldiers, hosted social events to boost morale, and welcomed guests, including political figures and military officials. These trips to winter camp were taxing on Martha, both physically and emotionally, but her presence and support were undoubtedly crucial to Washington’s persistence in the American cause. One of Martha Washington’s famous receptions, painted in 1861 by Daniel Huntington. Source: Brooklyn Museum, New York   In their later lives, Martha continued to support her husband as he became the country’s first president. She held weekly receptions at the presidential home in Philadelphia, welcoming people of disparate beliefs and diverse individuals who may not have had the opportunity for introduction and discourse otherwise.   These gatherings helped establish the idea that the president needed input from the people to complete his role effectively and enabled Martha to gain a reputation of respect among all classes of people. After the presidency, the couple returned to Mount Vernon, eager to enjoy retirement together. They loved their family home and relished the opportunity to be together there.   Unfortunately, only two and a half years after returning home, Washington passed away from a throat infection. His distraught wife burned their letters to one another, forever preserving the privacy of their most intimate words. Beside her husband in death as well as life, Martha joined her husband in the tomb he had planned for them at Mount Vernon on May 22, 1802.

  The Axis presence in North Africa ended with the last German and Italian units surrendering on May 13, 1943. Nearly four years of seesaw mobile battles finally ended with Axis losses of over 250,000 men. Between the earlier massive defeat at Stalingrad in Russia and North Africa, the Axis had lost over 500,000 men. From El Alamein to the American Moroccan landings, the Axis was squeezed out despite fighting tenaciously.    The Allies’ next target had already come into view: Sicily.   Casablanca Conference: January 1943 German Helmets in Tunisia, 1943. Source: Library of Congress   Though held even before the Axis lost North Africa, the weeklong January 1943 Casablanca Conference melded British and American goals. The first point they decided on became Operation Husky. Husky’s goal of taking Sicily would knock Italy from the war and clear the Mediterranean. The most important takeaway resulting from Casablanca was unconditional surrender. When victory came against the Axis, there’d be no negotiation, only total capitulation to the Allies, not to one country.   Planning and Deception: April 1943 Operation Mincemeat was made into a 2022 film starring Colin Firth. Source: TV Insider   Operation Husky represented the first big Allied go at Axis Europe using sea, land, and airborne forces. The Allies surprised their foes, who suspected they would attack Sicily but did not know when. Also, the Allies conducted an extensive ruse to keep the Axis Powers in the dark. Thus, came Operation Mincemeat, a British naval intelligence operation utilizing a homeless man’s corpse, clothed as a Royal Marine. Items placed on the body included identification papers and pictures of a fake girlfriend. More importantly, the agents planted false invasion plans for Sardinia and Greece. Left in Spanish waters, local fishermen found the body on April 10, 1943.    Operation Mincemeat proved very successful. The Germans reinforced Sardinia and Greece with scarce troops pulled from as far as Russia. These had been earmarked for the upcoming Operation Citadel.   The Air and Sea Landings: July 1943 Allied Sicily Landings. Source: Jewish Virtual Library   Two Allied airborne divisions, the 1st British Airborne and 82nd Airborne flew in after midnight. Due to bad weather, the transport planes were blown all over, scattering their troop loads far from their drop zones. Behind the airborne assault, the Allied fleet carrying the British 8th Army under Montgomery and the U.S. 7th Army under Patton landed on twenty-six beaches covering over one hundred miles. All landings hit the beaches at 2:45 AM on July 10, 1943.    Using over 3,000 ships and even more planes, the Allies needed to land 150,000 troops before any Axis reaction. Opposing them, the Italians possessed around 200,000 poorly equipped soldiers of varying quality. Only one division would be genuinely mobile.   A Tiger Tank from World War II. Source: Live Science   The Germans brought in 70,000 Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe troops, notably the tough Herman Goering Panzer Division. The lousy weather mostly hid the seaborne landings, surprising the Italians, who resisted, not fiercely, but the Allies established beachheads. Soon, British, Canadian, and American troops attacked inland, capturing Licata, a small harbor. The British also took Syracuse, a larger port. Several Italian or German counterattacks got repulsed, one in particular by accurate naval gunfire.    Starting on July 11, the Allies began pushing inland despite further Axis attacks. One combined Italian German attack, led by the Herman Goering Division’s tanks, including the massive Tiger tank, nearly broke through American defenses only a mile from the beach near the port of Gela! Accurate naval gunfire again broke up the attack. Axis air attacks grew rare due to Allied air superiority, which only stronger grew stronger as Sicilian airfields fell.    The Race for Messina and Victory American Troops in Messina 1943. Source: Warfare History Network   By July 31, 1943, the battle for Sicily became a race as the Axis fought fiercely, withdrawing slowly to avoid capture. Both sought to capture ports, especially Messina, directly across from the Italian mainland. If the Allies took this port, another North African disaster would ensue, which couldn’t happen. Patton and Montgomery each raced to take this port.   The slow Axis fighting retreat across the island into August frustrated Allied attempts to destroy the evacuation via the Straits of Messina. They grouped so many anti-aircraft guns that few air raids succeeded, and naval artillery covered the Straights, too. By August 17, the Axis finished transporting 135,000 men, including equipment, to safety. 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