In ancient Greece‚ Nike was worshiped as the goddess of victory. Her favor graced the victors of all kinds of contests‚ from foot races to great battles. She could also grant people success in the arts.  Nike was associated with both Zeus and Athena. She was often shown with huge wings on her back and golden sandals on her feet‚ carrying a laurel wreath or some other symbol of victory. Stone carving with the goddess Nike (a goddess who personified victory)‚ Ephesus Mythology of the Goddess Nike Nike was first mentioned in Hesiod’s Theogony‚ written around 700 BC. The earliest known statue of the goddess was crafted around 570 BC.  Nike was the goddess who presided over competitions. She judged the excellence of both mortals and gods‚ and she was associated with victorious athletes and successful artists.  In war‚ she was on the side of the victor. If victory was still uncertain and either side might triumph‚ she “day by day between them hovered on uncertain wings” as described in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. She was often shown in mid-flight‚ looking at the viewer as she rushed past. Nike was born of the River Styx‚ goddess of the underworld. Styx was the eldest daughter of the Titan Oceanus. She married Pallas‚ another Titan. Together they had four children. Nike’s three siblings were Bia‚ Kratos‚ and Zelus. Each one personified some concept. Bia represented force‚ Kratos represented strength and dominion‚ and Zelus represented rivalry or envy. Nike‚ the most well-known of the siblings‚ personified victory.  In some texts‚ such as the Homeric Hymns‚ Nike is the daughter of Ares‚ who was the god of war. Nike was a contemporary of Zeus‚ and she supported him during the Titanomachy. During this War of the Gods‚ the Olympians fought to overthrow the Titans‚ who lived on Mount Othrys.  Zeus banded together with his siblings to depose their father‚ Cronus. The resulting war went on for ten years‚ and Nike was one of the first to offer Zeus her allegiance.  Ever after‚ Nike was closely associated with Zeus. Theogony says that Nike and her siblings did “not live apart from Zeus… nor go except where the god goes before them‚ but they sit forever beside heavy-booming Zeus.” The immense Statue of Zeus at Olympia built in 435 BC held an ivory and gold statue of the goddess Nike in his outstretched hand. Following the Titanomachy‚ Nike also served Athena. The statue of Athena located in the Parthenon in Athens also held Victory in her hand; her other hand clutched a spear. Nike and Athena Athena was the goddess of wisdom and warfare. She was one of the Twelve Olympians‚ the most prominent and powerful gods and goddesses of Greek mythology. She sprang fully grown from the head of her father‚ Zeus‚ and became his favorite child. In Dionysiaca‚ Athena sends Nike as her emissary to aid Zeus in his battle against a monstrous snake-headed giant towards the end of the War of the Titans. She appeared in the guise of his lover Leto‚ mother of the god Apollo and the goddess Artemis. She urged him to confront the monster and defend Olympus.  The other gods had given up and fled the battle. If Zeus did not gather his courage and his thunderbolts‚ Nike warned‚ the monstrous Typhon would destroy Olympus and enslave Zeus’s daughters Artemis and Athena. The next day‚ Nike led Zeus into battle against the serpentine Typhon‚ who was led by Eris‚ the goddess of discord. Nike protected Zeus with her shield while he attacked Typhon with thunderbolts and freezing rain. Together they defeated the monster‚ and Zeus claimed victory over the Titans. Nike is so closely associated with Athena that she is sometimes viewed as one aspect of the goddess: the victory brought by wisdom in battle. They are often depicted together‚ armed with spear and shield.  Some scholars believe that Nike originated as one of three aspects of Athena. The other two were Boulaia‚ who represented wisdom‚ and Ergane‚ who represented skilled handcraft.  Others think that the two were always separate. This is partially because Nike represents victory in athletic and musical competitions as well as war‚ while Athena’s dominion doesn’t extend to athletics or the arts. The people of Athens worshiped the two goddesses as one deity called Athena Nike. The cult of Athena Nike was presided over by a priestess chosen democratically by the women of Athens. The Acropolis of Athens‚ an ancient fortress located above modern-day Athens‚ had a temple devoted to both goddesses called the Temple of Athena Nike. A statue of the goddess‚ wingless to keep her in Athens‚ was featured in the parapet.  Temple of Athena Nike‚ from Propylaea‚ Acropolis‚ Athens‚ Greece The temple was decorated with many elaborate friezes of battles. One intricate carving depicts the goddess fixing her sandal. The Temple of Athena Nike was built around the year 420 BC. The cult of Athena Nike had already been active for over a century at that point‚ and the temple was built after the previous one was destroyed by invaders from Persia.  As ancient Greece gave way to the Macedonians and Alexander the Great‚ they accepted the goddess of Victory as their own. Some coins from that era show Alexander on one side and Nike on the other. She was a popular figure throughout the Hellenistic period and beyond.  The Roman Goddess Victoria When Rome rose to power centuries later‚ they too adopted Nike as their own. In their religion‚ the goddess of victory was called Victoria.  Like Alexander had done many centuries before him‚ the Roman emperor Constantine II made coins with his face on one side and winged victory on the other.  Victoria was particularly popular with the military. In 294 BC a temple was constructed for the goddess on Rome’s centremost hill. It was used to store riches taken in battle.  Before long‚ there were many other shrines in her honor throughout Rome. Sacrifices were made to her at the Senate-house altar before each meeting. Her altar was removed from its temple at the senate house by a Christian empire of Rome in the year 382. The post Mythology of the Ancient Greek Goddesses Nike and Athena first appeared on History Defined.

There are many cryptids and mythical creatures in the world‚ folkloric creatures that many claim to have seen but that they are unable to prove exist: mermaids‚ Bigfoot‚ the Jersey Devil‚ and the Yeti to name a few.  People who believe in these creatures have taken pictures‚ recorded videos‚ and offered up personal accounts‚ but no hard evidence to prove their existence has ever appeared. But‚ many different creatures over the years have been disproven as either fraudulent or simply nonexistent.  Sanderson holding a plaster cast of the monster’s footprint after a sighting near Cross City in 1948. Tampa Bay Times files  The Fiji Mermaid A prime example occurred in 1822 when sailors bought what would become known as the Fiji mermaid. The sailors brought the corpse back to the United States believing they had purchased a rare creature. However‚ the mermaid was the top half of a monkey sewn onto the back half of a fish. After a brief stint in London‚ the specimen was displayed by PT Barnum in his show in New York.  While some believed it to be true‚ it was likely the result of an industry in Japan producing mermaid lookalikes. This is one of the most famous examples of the falsified existence of a mythical creature.  The Fiji Mermaid from Mal Corvus Witchcraft &; Folklore artefact private collection owned by Malcolm Lidbury (aka Pink Pasty) Witchcraft Tools Footprints on the Beach Another example emerged in Florida nearly a century later in 1948. In a suburb of Tampa Bay called Clearwater Beach‚ residents began to notice strange patterns on the beach.  Three-toed footprints were noticed along a long stretch of the ocean. It seemed as though a giant creature had emerged from the ocean‚ strutting its path across the beach.  The footprints measured 12 inches by 15 inches. Scientists who measured the footprints determined that the creature would need to be more than 15 feet tall and weigh over 2000 pounds in order to make prints that wide and deep.  Soon after‚ similar footprints were found on the banks of the Suwannee River‚ over 40 miles from the ocean‚ which inspired both fear and wonder. People began to wonder what could possibly have made the prints‚ and how far it was traveling through Florida.  Sightings of the Clearwater Monster The Clearwater Monster‚ or “Old Three-Toes‚” became a local cryptid and focus of folklore for almost a decade. Sightings began to occur of a large creature all around middle Florida.  A group of people in a boat off the coast made the first sighting. They claimed that they saw a giant penguin-like creature floating on top of the water nearly out of sight.  This began the frenzy of noticing the creature‚ as news articles began spreading the tale far and wide.  Later that year‚ students from the Dunedin Flying School were doing a test flight near the Clearwater Bridge‚ where they saw an unknown creature. The fliers described the beast as large and furry. It looked like a log with a furry head attached‚ although from a distance no one was ever clear on what they saw. This is what attracted the attention of famous zoologist Ivan Sanderson.  Early Cryptozoology  Sanderson was a renowned biologist. He had relocated from Britain to New York to pursue his studies.  While he had studied real animals plenty‚ he had also studied mysterious creatures before. He even coined the term “cryptozoologist”: pseudoscience that studies unknown‚ legendary‚ or extinct animals of unsubstantiated existence.  With extensive research experience‚ he closely examined the footprints‚ even making a mold and taking it home with him. After investigating closely‚ he ruled that the creature that made them was undoubtedly real‚ and most likely was an extinct version of an ancient giant penguin.  Articles about the beast circulated for years‚ although no one was ever able to locate it.  Florida Man Strikes Again That is because the beast was actually the result of two local pranksters: Tony Signorini and Al Williams. Both men worked at Auto Electric. They were inspired to start the prank after Williams saw a National Geographic article about dinosaur footprints The men decided to create some of their own and make it seem like a giant creature was roaming the shores. Using the auto equipment they crafted gigantic feet with 30-pound weights and attached shoes to them for the men to wear and walk around in.  Originally‚ the two men traveled out into the water by boat so that Signorini could march out of the water and up the beach‚ mimicking a creature coming ashore. Their plan was then to bring their friends to the shore the next day and “stumble upon” the footprints to surprise everyone.  The men continued their prank for years‚ progressively spreading out the footprints and inspiring people’s imaginations across the state.  Self-taught zoologist Sanderson studies one of the mystery tracks on the jungle floor. Tampa Bay Times (1948)  Wrapping Up the Con The truth would not be revealed for 40 years after the first sighting. Williams died in 1969‚ and Sanderson died in 1973‚ but Signorini was prepared to share the tale in the 1980s.  Jan Kirby‚ a journalist for the St. Petersburg Times broke the story by interviewing Signorini. He still had the giant iron feet and posed with them for all to see. Although the footprints were faked‚ the giant penguin theory pitched by Sanderson that once existed could have made similar footprints.  These penguins‚ such as Pachydyptes ponderosus or Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi‚ existed millions of years ago and hardly even encountered early hominids‚ let alone humans. They also existed in the South Pacific near Africa‚ not near North America‚ further disproving that the footprints ever could have belonged to a living creature.  People are always intrigued by that which they do not understand. Almost everyone wants to believe in something unbelievable. When the truth came out‚ some people found joy in the prank while others were disappointed that the creature was not real.  Regardless of how anyone feels‚ Signorini and Williams have gone down in history as legendary prankers. References Lammle‚ Rob. “Florida’s Giant Penguin.” Mental Floss‚ October 18‚ 2023. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/52460/strange-states-floridas-giant-penguin.  Ulansey‚ Ben. “The Man Who Briefly Convinced Floridians That Dinosaurs Had Returned.” Medium‚ January 6‚ 2023. https://medium.com/thought-thinkers/the-man-who-briefly-convinced-floridians-that-dinosaurs-had-returned-402717cf5fae. The post Florida Dinosaur: How Creatures from the Deep Walked Again first appeared on History Defined.

Desperate times called for desperate measures for Japan at the end of 1944. The Americans were sweeping through the Pacific‚ winning battle after battle.  They were destroying Japanese warships in the process. Japan’s air commanders proposed that the pilots turn their planes into bombs. The objective was to crash into American warships and aircraft carriers and deplete their ability to wage war. These suicide bombers‚ called kamikazes‚ mostly volunteered their services to sacrifice themselves to help Japan defeat the Americans. While the efforts were effective in damaging US ships‚ they didn’t change the tide of the war.  In fact‚ it led to the eventual use of the atomic bomb and Japan’s unconditional surrender. But what if a kamikaze pilot didn’t want to give their life up for their country? What if they went to perform the mission and had a change of heart‚ ultimately deciding to turn for home?  Or what if they had a mechanical failure and couldn’t give themselves up? Each scenario came with different consequences. Navy Kamikaze pilot in the rank of a Lieutenant (Chui) receives sortie orders The Start of Kamikaze Missions For the first 18 months‚ the war was going Japan’s way. They were pushing the United States back‚ even taking the Philippines in early 1942.  But then Midway arrived‚ and the US turned the tide with a decisive victory. From there‚ it went downhill for Japan. In 1944‚ things completely spiraled out of control when the US took the Marshall Islands. The Americans were destroying Japanese ships at incredible levels. They were killing pilots in the air. Japan was simply failing to stop the American offensive. They were losing more pilots than they could train. They simply could not keep up.  By October 1944‚ the only way to keep the war going was to take drastic steps to eliminate American planes and weapons. It would prove fatal for both sides.  Japanese Naval captain Motoharu Okamura claimed‚ “I firmly believe that the only way to swing the war in our favor is to resort to crash-dive attacks with our planes…. There will be more than enough volunteers for this chance to save our country.” Okamura sought volunteers‚ and many came forward‚ some by coercion‚ others by choice. A lot of Japanese pilots saw it as an honor to die for their country. They became warriors‚ and they were looked at with the highest respect by the country and its leaders.  They got the best treatment‚ including the best food rations. But the training they had to go through was rigorous. Before each mission‚ these pilots would have a drink of Sake and eat rice before boarding the plane.  The U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) being hit by a Japanese bomb-laden kamikaze on 14 May 1945 Prior to taking off‚ the planes had maximum fuel because that would create a more significant explosion. Thus‚ any rumors that they were given little fuel as an incentive not to return home were false. They also had the heaviest bombs on board you could find‚ adding to the damage. When in the air‚ the pilots turned themselves into human bombs. But while these kamikazes were effective at damaging US ships‚ they also were losing their own pilots and planes in the process.  It was a lose-lose situation for each side. The first kamikaze mission happened on Oct. 25‚ 1944‚ in the Battle of the Leyte Gulf. During the Battle of Okinawa‚ more than 1‚900 kamikaze pilots were assigned to crash into U.S. ships from April to June 1945‚ the most of any battle in the war. As a result‚ more than 300 U.S. ships were damaged or sunk‚ and nearly 5‚000 Allied sailors were killed. Pilots Who Returned Home Pilots who returned home from their mission were put into two groups.  The first group of pilots were those who couldn’t complete their mission because they had a mechanical issue that forced them to return home. Or possibly because the weather conditions deterred them from seeing the target.  As long as they could prove their reasoning‚ they were given the benefit of the doubt and not punished. Their kamikaze mission was rescheduled. Also included in this group were pilots who couldn’t carry their missions out because they were spotted by their enemy. Some were instructed to return home by their superior officers.  Kamikaze missions were meant to be done in secret. If the Americans saw them‚ they could shoot down the plane well before it hit their target‚ resulting in a failure. However‚ there was also the group of pilots who psychologically could not go through with the mission. While they weren’t executed for not completing it‚ they were punished‚ sometimes harshly.  They were called cowards and put through mental and physical torture at times. Their families also were beaten‚ an incentive for these pilots not to fail the next go around. One pilot failed nine times and was eventually executed. The “cowards” were put in squadrons to increase the peer pressure on them to perform their task the second time. By being in a squadron‚ they couldn’t fly away and disappear. They always had eyes on them.  Some pilots ejected themselves before the planes hit‚ a last-second fear of dying. Most of these pilots still ended up losing their lives regardless.  However‚ there were a few select that survived‚ and were taken as a Prisoner of War. They were eventually released after the war. Were All Kamikazes Volunteers? One of the biggest false narratives that came from Japan is that all pilots volunteered their lives to become kamikazes and die for their country.  In the later stages of the war‚ many Japanese pilots were forced to volunteer with no alternative. They had no choice in their assignment.  Even men who didn’t want to serve were given very little training and asked to turn themselves into human bombs. They were trained on how to take off‚ but not how to land. Some were given incentives and rewards for volunteering themselves. While others were threatened with severe punishment if they refused to comply with orders.  This included harsh treatment of their families‚ which in essence forced some to volunteer‚ out of fear their loved ones would be killed. In the end‚ they had no choice but to comply with orders. Kazuo Odachi was one of the few kamikaze pilots who survived and lived to tell the story. In his memoir‚ he wrote that Japanese officers were met with “stunned silence” when they explained the suicide mission and asked for volunteers.  Kazuo Odachi from The New York Times article Only after threats were made did volunteers begin to come forward. “We were essentially cajoled into committing suicide‚” Odachi recalled. Odachi was fortunate in that many of his suicide missions were called off either before takeoff or while they were in the air. Sometimes they failed to find a target‚ while other times his squadron was spotted and had no choice but to return home.  Just before his final mission‚ Japan had surrendered and he had survived the war. According to the United States Strategic Bombing Survey‚ more than 2‚500 kamikaze missions were attempted. Most of those happened in the Battle of Okinawa‚ as previously indicated.  Just under 20 percent of these missions achieved success. While the other 80 percent either resulted in failed missions or the US successfully shooting down the planes before they hit the target. References “Kamikaze Pilots.” History.Navy.mil. Nd. https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/museums/nmusn/explore/photography/wwii/wwii-japan/kamikaze/pilots-kamikaze.html#:~:text=The%20name%20was%20resurrected%20from‚before%20flown%20into%20their%20targets. Aneculaesei‚ Calin. “What Happened When a Kamikaze Pilot Returned?” HistoryofYesterday.com. 12 Sep 2022. https://historyofyesterday.com/what-happened-when-a-kamikaze-pilot-returned/ Dooley‚ Ben. “He Escaped Death As a Kamikaze Pilot. 70 Years Later‚ He Told His Story.” New York Times. 15 Dec 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/03/world/asia/japan-kamikaze.html “Who Were the Fanatical Kamikaze Pilots of WWII and How Deadly Were They?” HistorySkills.com. Nd. https://www.historyskills.com/classroom/year-10/kamikaze/The post What Happened to the Kamikaze Pilots Who Returned?  first appeared on History Defined.

If every piece of a ship is replaced over time until none of the original components remain‚ is it still the same ship?  The Ship of Theseus is a thought experiment rooted in the story of Theseus‚ the founder-king of Athens who took a certain ship on a pilgrimage each year to honor the god Apollo.  Over the centuries‚ Greek philosophers began to wonder: If each individual piece was replaced over the years‚ is it really the same ship? This ancient philosophical question was first documented by Plutarch in the first century AD.  Two-faced Janus‚ Unknown Artist‚ 18th century‚ via Hermitage Museum; with Theseus and Ariadne‚ from Jeu de la Mythologie by Stefano Della Bella‚ 1644‚ via The Metropolitan Museum The Story of Theseus Theseus was the mythical founder-king of Athens. He was the son and heir of King Aegeus‚ though many myths say that Theseus’s true father was Poseidon. His mother was a Greecian princess by the name of Aethra. She raised him in her father’s kingdom. When Theseus came of age‚ he journeyed to Athens to claim his birthright. He traveled overland and vanquished many enemies on the way.  The six entrances to the underworld where he encountered and bested his foes are referred to as the Six Labors of Theseus. More enemies awaited him in Athens‚ but he outsmarted them all and was reunited with his father.  When a prince of Crete was assassinated in Athens‚ King Minos threatened to send his army to avenge his son’s death. King Aegeus surrendered‚ and Minos demanded tribute in retribution: every seven years‚  Athens must send its seven most courageous young men and the seven most beautiful maidens on a ship to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur‚ the man-bull monster imprisoned there in a labyrinth.  With the help of Minos’s daughter Ariadne‚ Theseus traveled to the center of the labyrinth and found the Minotaur. They fought‚ and Theseus prevailed. He rescued the young Athenians sent as tribute and stole away Minos’s two daughters.  The ship that carried Theseus through this successful mission was the Ship of Theseus referred to by Plutarch. The Athenian people had pledged to honor Apollo every year if the hero returned with those sons and daughters of Athens‚ and so they did.  The ship sailed to the island of Delos each year to pay tribute to Apollo.  Worn-out and rotten wood was replaced each year. This gave rise to the question of whether or not it was still the same ship that carried Theseus home from Crete. Plutarch Plutarch was a Greek philosopher born in the first century AD. He was also a historian‚ magistrate‚ and priest of Apollo. His famous work Parallel Lives contains the first recorded reference to the Ship of Theseus paradox.  Parallel Lives‚ or Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans‚ is a series of 48 biographies. It is made up of 24 pairs of biographies; each one includes a famous Greek and a famous Roman. The first volume compares Theseus to Romulus‚ the legendary founder-king of Rome. In Life of Theseus‚ Plutarch wrote: The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned from Crete had thirty oars‚ and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus‚ for they took away the old planks as they decayed‚ putting in new and stronger timber in their places‚ insomuch that this ship became a standing example among the philosophers‚ for the logical question of things that grow; one side holding that the ship remained the same‚ and the other contending that it was not the same. Life of Theseus‚ Plutarch This question endured for centuries and was expanded by the Englishman Thomas Hobbes. Thomas Hobbes’ Interpretation Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who was born in 1588. His book Leviathan postulated that a social contract is a necessary precursor to any civilized society.  He believed that the authority of the state over the individual was necessary to promote order‚ arts‚ and industry. Ultimately‚ argued Hobbes‚ all of that authority must rest with the nation’s sovereign.  In the 17th century‚ Hobbes extended the old question by exploring it from another angle: If a ship is taken apart and the material is used to build a second ship‚ is that still the same ship? In his essay “Of Identity and Difference” Hobbes wrote: For if that Ship of Theseus (concerning the Difference whereof‚ made by continual reparation‚ in taking out the old Planks‚ and putting in new‚ the sophisters of Athens were wont to dispute) were‚ after all the Planks were changed‚ the same Numerical Ship it was at the beginning; and if some Man had kept the Old Planks as they were taken out‚ and by putting them afterward together in the same order‚ had again made a Ship of them‚ this‚ without doubt‚ had also been the same Numerical Ship with that which was at the beginnings and so there would have been two Ships Numerically the same‚ which is absurd… But we must consider by what name anything is called when we inquire concerning the Identity of it… so that a Ship‚ which signifies Matter so figured‚ will be the same‚ as long as the Matter remains the same; but if no part of the Matter is the same‚ then it is Numerically another Ship; and if part of the Matter remains‚ and part is changed‚ then the Ship will be partly the same‚ and partly not the same. “Of Identity and Difference‚” Thomas Hobbes He concluded that there were two kinds of identity at play here: Form and Matter.  In the original question‚ the ship that maintains the same shape while being composed of entirely new materials is the same ship in form but not in matter. In the latter‚ the ship is made of the same materials but takes a new form. In this particular instance‚ Hobbes didn’t deal in absolutes. The answer‚ he concluded‚ was somewhere in between: neither ship was completely the same or completely different from the original.  His work would later be built upon by cognitive scientists who explained that the very concept of a ship (and our understanding of the world in general) is less of an objective truth and more of a human idea. The form and matter may change‚ but the ship stays the same.The post The Philosophical Conundrum of the Ship of Theseus first appeared on History Defined.

Unless you’re an American history buff or student of American Presidential history‚ you may never have heard the name Edith Bolling Galt Wilson. But for all intents and purposes‚ she served as the first de facto female President of the United States‚ from October 1919 to March 1921. She was the second wife of President Woodrow Wilson who was in office from 1913-1921. Edith Wilson married the widower Wilson in December of 1915‚ during his first term as president.  But following a severe stroke President Wilson suffered in October of 1919‚ First Lady Wilson essentially spoke and acted on the president’s behalf. She managed the Office of the President. This was a role that she later described as a “stewardship.” But most historians now recognize it as having influenced both Domestic and International Policy. For nearly three years‚ First Lady Wilson determined which communications and matters of State were important enough to bring to the attention of the bedridden president. And which one were to be delegated to members of his cabinet. All while keeping Vice President Thomas Riley Marshall unaware of President Wilson’s incapacitation.    Most significantly‚ perhaps‚ Edith Wilson worked behind the scenes during the ratification process of the Treaty of Versailles. This was the peace treaty signed on June 28‚ 1919‚ that ended hostilities between Germany and most of the Allied Powers. It was never ratified by the US. Yet‚ it was crucial to help craft a separate peace treaty with Germany. President Woodrow Wilson‚ seated at desk with his wife‚ Edith Bolling Galt‚ standing at his side. 1920. Library of Congress Early Life Edith Bolling (Galt Wilson) was born on October 15‚ 1872‚ in Wytheville‚ Virginia‚ to circuit-court judge William Holcombe Bolling and Sarah “Sallie” Spears (née White).  Bolling was the seventh of eleven children. She was a direct descendant of the first settlers to arrive at Virginia Colony in the early 17th Century.  Through her father‚ she was also a descendant of Mataoka‚ better known as Pocahontas. She was also related either by blood or through marriage to Thomas Jefferson‚ Martha Washington‚ Letitia Tyler (wife of President John Tyler)‚ and the (President Benjamin) Harrison family. Edith Bolling between 1886 and 1896. Library of Congress The Bollings were among the oldest members of Virginia’s slave-owning “planter elite” prior to the American Civil War.  Like many of the “planter elite‚” the Bollings justified slave ownership by insisting that their slaves were content with their lives as “chattel” and had little desire for freedom. Edith Bolling grew up with these ideas ingrained in her head After the Civil War ended and slavery was abolished‚ Edith’s father turned to the practice of law to support his family. Ultimately unable to continue to pay the high taxes on his extensive plantations‚ William Bolling moved his family to Wytheville‚ where most of his children were born. In addition to eight surviving siblings‚ Edith Bolling’s grandmothers‚ aunts‚ and cousins also lived in the Bolling home. This made for constant activity.  Many of the Bolling women had lost husbands in the Civil War. They‚ as a family‚ were staunch supporters of the Confederacy.  Education Edith Bolling had little formal education. Her sisters attended various local schools. But Edith was taught at home by her paternal grandmother‚ Anne Wiggington Bolling‚ despite being bedridden by a spinal cord injury.  In exchange for learning how to read‚ write‚ basic math skills‚ make dresses‚ and speak a hybrid version of French and English‚ Bolling washed her grandmother’s clothes. She also put her to bed each night‚ and cared for her 26 canaries.  It was her grandmother who instilled a tendency to make quick judgments and hold strong opinions. These were personality traits Edith Bolling Galt Wilson would exhibit her entire life. When Bolling was 15 years of age‚ her father enrolled her at Martha Washington College. This merged with the Emory and Henry College in 1918. It was a private finishing school for girls in Abingdon‚ Virginia; specifically chosen for its excellent music program.  Edith Bolling Galt Wilson‚ full-length portrait‚ seated on porch(?)‚ facing slightly left‚ at age 15. 1887. Library of Congress Bolling‚ however‚ proved to be an undisciplined‚ ill-prepared student who constantly complained. She thought that the food was poorly prepared‚ the rooms were too cold‚ and the daily curriculum was much too rigorous. It came as no surprise to her family when Bolling asked to come home after just one semester. Two years later‚ Bolling’s father enrolled her in Powell’s School for Girls in Richmond‚ Virginia. This was an environment she apparently liked infinitely better than her former finishing school.  In later years she would write that her time at Powell’s was the happiest time of her life. Unfortunately‚ the school closed at the end of that year after the headmaster suffered an accident in which he lost his leg.  Concerned about the cost of Edith’s education‚ William Bolling turned his attention to educating his three sons.  Edith Bolling’s First Marriage In 1895 while visiting her married sister in Washington‚ D.C.‚ Edith Bolling met Norman Galt. He was a prominent jeweler associated with Galt &; Brothers. The couple married on April 30‚ 1896‚ and resided in Washington for the next 12 years.  In 1903‚ Edith Bolling Galt bore a son to Norman Galt–who lived but a few days. A difficult birth left Edith unable to bear more children.  In January of 1908‚ Norman Galt died unexpectedly at the age of 43.  Inheriting her husband’s highly lucrative business‚ Edith Bolling Galt found herself widowed–but quite wealthy.  She hired a financial manager to oversee his business and paid off all his debts. With the money remaining‚ she began making trips to Europe. There she developed a taste for fine food and haute couture fashion. But despite her wealth (and what one described as “kittenish” good looks)‚ the widow Bolling Galt was barred from the upper echelons of D.C. high society because her wealth wasn’t old money. It derived from retail rather than shipping‚ banking‚ or other more respectable forms of high finance.   (Gaut &; Bros. [or just Galt]) exists to this day and is one of the most respected jewelers in the Country.) Edith Bolling Galt’s Marriage to Woodrow Wilson In March of 1915‚ Edith Bolling Galt was introduced to the recently widowed US President Woodrow Wilson at the White House. She was introduced by the president’s first cousin Helen Woodrow Bones.  Bones served as the official White House hostess after the death of Wilson’s wife‚ Ellen Axson Wilson. (Traditionally‚ one of the responsibilities of a First Lady was hosting formal affairs at the White House.) Instantly attracted to Bolling Galt‚ Wilson proposed soon after their first meeting. However‚ rumors spread that Wilson had cheated on his wife with Bolling Galt (and had‚ in fact‚ plotted the former First Lady’s death with Bolling Galt). This threatened their pursuit of a relationship.  President Wilson and his second wife‚ Edith Bolling Galt Wilson. Library of Congress. Wilson was concerned about the effect such wild speculation could have on the presidency (and his personal reputation). He advised Bolling Galt to back out of their engagement that they might both save face.  As a compromise‚ Bolling Galt insisted that they simply keep a low profile and observe the traditional one-year period of mourning.  With no further hindrances‚ Woodrow Wilson and Edith Bolling Galt married on December 18‚ 1915‚ at her home in Washington‚ D.C. There were 40 guests in attendance.  The ceremony was jointly performed by the groom’s pastor‚ Reverend Dr. James H. Taylor of Central Presbyterian Church‚ and the bride’s‚ Reverend Dr. Herbert Scott Smith of St. Margaret’s Episcopal Church. Life as the First Lady Due to the intense attraction between Woodrow and Edith‚ the two were seldom apart. Wilson invited her to sit with him when he reviewed important documents.  Some of them were highly secret and related to the war. He even allowed her to be present during critical discussions with his advisers.  But aside from the presidency‚ Edith’s primary concern was her husband’s health and comfort. She showed little interest in politics except as it related to him.  As First Lady during WWI‚ Edith Bolling Galt Wilson herself observed all the restrictions imposed on the American people to conserve natural resources during wartime: “gasless Sundays‚” “meatless Mondays‚” and “wheatless Wednesdays”–in an effort to set an example.  In keeping with these federal policies‚ she arranged for sheep to graze on the White House lawn rather than use manpower to mow it. She even had their wool auctioned off to benefit the American Red Cross. Additionally‚ Edith Wilson became the first First Lady to travel to Europe during her time at the White House. She was qualified for the role of official White House hostess.  However‚ the social aspect of Wilson’s administration was overshadowed by the war in Europe. She abandoned it completely after the US formally entered the conflict in 1917.  Woodrow Wilson‚ half length‚ seated‚ facing right; and his wife (Edith Bolling Galt). 1919. Library of Congress Edith Wilson merged her own life with that of her husband’s‚ trying to keep him healthy under tremendously stressful conditions. She accompanied him to Europe when the Allies met to discuss terms for peace. On two occasions‚ in 1918 and 1919‚ the First Lady accompanied her husband to Europe to address the troops‚ and to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Her presence among female royalty of Europe helped secure America’s status as a world power and elevate the status of First Lady in international politics.  She was charming‚ well-spoken‚ and highly respected. Tragedy in the White House Following his attendance at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 (the international meeting to establish the post-war peace terms)‚ President Woodrow Wilson returned to the US. He was intending to campaign for Senate approval of the proposed treaty.  But quite unexpectedly‚ the president suffered a massive stroke. It left him bedridden and partially paralyzed. (To this day‚ his limitations are only speculative.) It was decided by the president’s inner circle (including his physician and close advisors) that the true extent of the president’s disability be withheld from the American public. Even the vice president. (They wanted no shift in power.) From October of 1919 to the end of Wilson’s term on March 4‚ 1921‚ First Lady Wilson decided which communications and matters of State were important enough to bring to her husband’s attention. She appointed herself the sole communication link between the president and his staff. She insisted that all memos‚ correspondence‚ questions‚ requests‚ and pressing matters be directed to her only.  In her biography‚ My Memoir: Edith Bolling Wilson‚ Edith Wilson later wrote: “I studied every paper sent from the different Secretaries or Senators and tried to digest and present in tabloid form the things that‚ despite my vigilance‚ had to go to the President. I‚ myself‚ never made a single decision regarding the disposition of public affairs. The only decision that was mine was what was important and what was not‚ and the very important decision of when to present matters to my husband.”  My Memoir: Edith Bolling Wilson (Historians doubt that this explanation is anything more than her attempt to preserve President Wilson’s legacy.) After the White House Upon leaving the White House in March of 1921‚ Edith and Woodrow Wilson moved into a home on S. Street NW in Washington‚ D.C. There‚ she continued to care for the former president until his death on February 3‚ 1924.  In subsequent years‚ Edith Bolling Galt Wilson headed the Woman’s National Democratic Club’s board of governors when the club formally started in 1924. She subsequently published her memoir in 1939. A permanent fixture in American politics‚ Edith Wilson was present during President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s address to Congress on December 8‚ 1941. This was the day after Japan bombed Pearl Harbor.  Woodrow Wilson and Edith Bolling Galt Wilson. National Portrait Gallery‚ Smithsonian Institution This speech was when he asked Congress to declare war. This intentionally drew a link to President Wilson’s April 1917 Declaration of War against Germany.  Four years later‚ on April 14‚ 1945‚ the former First Lady Wilson attended Roosevelt‘s funeral at the White House. She was also present on January 20‚ 1961‚ for the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy. On December 28‚ 1961‚ at the age of 89‚ Edith Bolling Galt Wilson died of congestive heart failure just days before what would have been her husband’s 105th birthday. She is buried next to her husband at the Washington National Cathedral. Ongoing Controversy  Until her final days‚ former First Lady Edith Bolling Galt Wilson insisted that she never exercised the full power of the presidency. At best‚ she used some of its prerogatives on behalf of her husband.  But in more recent years‚ scholars have become increasingly more critical of Edith Wilson’s tenure as First Lady. They are now able to consider the long-term effects of her term as De Facto President.   Historian Phyllis Lee Levin has stated that the effectiveness of Woodrow Wilson’s policies was unnecessarily hampered by his wife. She called her “a woman of narrow views and formidable determination.”  Other critics have declared that Edith Bolling Galt Wilson naively underestimated her own role in her husband’s presidency. While she may not have made “critical” decisions‚ she influenced domestic and international policy. She played a part in deciding which matters to bring to her husband’s attention. She prioritized these matters according to her own values and understanding of politics.    Similarly‚ medical historian Dr. Howard Markel has taken issue with First Lady Wilson’s claim of a “benign stewardship” in his article called‚ “When a Secret President Ran the Country.” He stated emphatically that Edith Wilson “was‚ essentially‚ the nation’s chief executive until her husband’s second term concluded in March of 1921.” Even a century later‚ historians hesitate to underestimate Edith Bolling Galt Wilson’s true political legacy—or that of her husband.    References britannica.com.‚ “Edith Wilson‚” Edith Wilson | American First Lady‚ WWI Activist &; Widow of Woodrow Wilson | Britannica  pbs.org.‚ “When a secret president ran the country‚” When a secret president ran the country | PBS NewsHour  biography.com.‚ “Edith Wilson: The First Lady Who Became an Acting President — Without Being Elected‚” Edith Wilson: The First Lady Who Became an Acting President — Without Being Elected (biography.com)  npr.org.‚ “A new biography of first lady Edith Wilson examines her political influence‚” https://www.npr.org/2023/03/15/1163669149/a-new-biography-of-first-lady-edith-wilson-examines-her-political-influence firstladies.c-span.org.‚ “Edith Wilson‚” https://firstladies.c-span.org/FirstLady/30/Edith-Wilson.aspx archive.org.‚ My Memoir‚ https://archive.org/details/mymemoir0000wils_d6c9/page/n3/mode/2up historynewsnetwork.org.‚ Phyllis Lee Levin’s Edith and Woodrow‚ https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/519The post Edith Bolling Galt Wilson: America’s First Female President first appeared on History Defined.

In the darkest corners of true crime history‚ certain names stand out as chilling reminders of the limits of depravity in the human psyche.  Harvey Glatman‚ infamously known as the “Glamour Girl Killer‚” carved a gruesome path through the 1950s‚ leaving a trail of victims in his wake.  His actions would redefine the safety procedures of the modeling industry and demonstrate the dark potential of meeting strangers‚ highlighting the risks that come with striving for success.  Harvey Glatman Colorado State Penitentiary mugshot. Harvey Glatman’s Troubling Childhood Harvey Murray Glatman was born on December 10‚ 1927‚ in the Bronx‚ New York to Albert and Ophelia Glatman. They moved to Denver‚ Colorado when he was young.  Even from an early age‚ Glatman demonstrated troubling behavior that hinted at his disturbed psyche. As a young boy‚ he began experimenting with bondage‚ perhaps as a response to his parents’ extreme discipline against him.  He first tied a rope around his penis and pulled on it for sexual pleasure‚ and then escalated to suffocating himself. One time‚ he ran the rope through the bathroom drain and tightened it against his neck.  His parents grew concerned by his behavior. They took young Glatman to their family doctor‚ who assured the worried parents that he would grow out of it.  As Glatman entered his teenage years‚ his criminal record began to take shape. He began breaking into women’s apartments and stealing items such as their lingerie‚ and in one case a handgun.  Theft and breaking and entering proved to be a gateway to invading women’s lives though. He soon began stalking and sexually assaulting women.  He moved to New York and in 1945 he was arrested for sexual assault. His parents were in disbelief‚ and begged the judge to not send him away. Their pleas did not work. He was sentenced to 5-10 years in a correctional facility‚ where he was possibly diagnosed as schizophrenic.  The Rise of Harvey Glatman Crime author Martin Newman has studied Glatman and other serial killers for years. He claims that Glatman’s sociopathy allowed him to easily tolerate the incarceration process and appeal to the authorities that defined his life.  Through his research‚ Newman has seen that sociopaths learn how to act how authority figures expect. Even to the extent that they can even con polygraph tests.  In this case‚ Glatman was able to play the role of a reformed inmate well and demonstrate that he changed his behaviors. This manipulation earned Glatman a pardon in 1948 and he was released early.  In a twist of fate‚ he had spent two years of his sentence at Sing Sing correctional facility in New York‚ This is where another notorious serial killer and sexual assaulter‚ Albert Fish‚ had been incarcerated and executed a decade before.  Similarly‚ Fish had spent a short stint in Sing Sing prior to the bulk of his crimes‚ and also charmed his way out. Glatman was shaping up to be another serial killer in the making‚ although his target demographic and methodology would be drastically different from Fish’s.  Upon his release from Sing Sing‚ Glatman returned home to live with his parents for a short period of time. At some point after his parents’ deaths‚ he made his way to Los Angeles and opened up a television repair shop by the mid-1950s.  While he stayed out of trouble for a decade‚ Glatman’s twisted psyche would once again escalate his crimes in 1957‚ this time pairing sexual assault with murder.  When he was not repairing televisions‚ he also took up photography and continued to tie ropes‚ practicing his sadomasochistic craft. These hobbies became the center of his criminal activity and were a dangerous combination.  Harvey M. Glatman‚ (right)‚ and officers‚ stand over bones in San Diego‚ Calif.‚ He told officers these were the remains of Mrs. Shirley Bridgeford‚ 24. NY Daily News The Glamour Girl Killer In postwar America‚ the fame and fortune of Hollywood entranced people around the country. Thousands flocked to Los Angeles for their chance at a big break.  Glatman began advertising himself as a photographer in modeling magazines to attract young women to his apartment. This earned him the moniker “Glamour Girl Killer.”  He promised that he could catapult the women into the spotlight with the snapshots he took of them. Little did they know that they were falling into the trap of a killer.  Judy Dull was the first to fall prey to his sinister tactics. The 19-year-old aspiring model was lured under the guise of a photoshoot with Glatman‚ hoping to break into the Hollywood scene.  Armed with a camera and sinister intentions‚ Glatman convinced Dull to return to his apartment with him. There‚ he subjected Dull to brutal acts of violence‚ including tying her up and sexually assaulting her.  He documented the acts with his camera‚ taking multiple photographs of her tied up. After he was satisfied with his sick photographs‚ he drove Dull out to the desert east of the city and strangled her with his favorite rope.   Dull’s murder marked the beginning of a string of atrocities. Glatman continued to exploit the dreams of young women seeking stardom. He relished in the personal trophies he took from the women he killed as well as the photographs that he took of their suffering.  He would use similar tactics to manipulate‚ assault‚ and murder two more victims: Ruth Mercado sought a model agency‚ and Shirley Bridgeford met Glatman through a Lonely Hearts ad.  Each met their end at the hands of a sadistic killer pretending to be a photographer who would change their life. It was not until his potential fourth victim‚ Lorraine Vigil‚ that Glatman was unable to complete his criminal ritual.  Vigil was in the car with Glatman as they were supposedly heading towards his studio for the shoot. However‚ she noticed that Glatman was taking the car out of the city and began questioning what was happening.  Glatman then pulled a pistol on her and attempted to tie her hands‚ but the resulting struggle saw Glatman shoot Vigil in the hip. Despite this‚ Vigil was able to wrench the gun from Glatman and in the process pull them both from the vehicle as a police officer drove by.  The officer arrested Glatman‚ who went on to admit to his other three murders‚ recounting the details with glee.  Newspaper clippings of the victims from the case. St. Louis Post-Dispatch The Trial and Conviction The ensuing trial would uncover Glatman’s disturbed history of violence against women in 1959. A search of his apartment would unveil the collection of photographs and trophies that Glatman took from his victims.  The prosecution had a strong case with this evidence. The photographs demonstrated in detail the sadistic steps that Glatman took in killing the women and his confession demonstrated the joy he took.  As Lorraine Vigil was the sole survivor of his crimes‚ she was able to provide damning testimony in court as well as the cruel methods Glatman took to try and abduct and kill her. The trial‚ which gripped the nation‚ found Glatman guilty on multiple counts of murder. He was sentenced to death. In September he was executed in the gas chamber at St. Quentin.  In 2009‚ another Jane Doe from Boulder‚ Colorado was identified at Mitotyping Technologies in State College‚ Pennsylvania. The woman’s corpse had been found near Boulder in 1954.  It was clear she had been tied up and assaulted‚ which was Glatman’s signature. A woman claiming the body may have been her sister‚ met with the scientists there and assisted in getting a DNA match.  The woman was identified as Dorothy Gay Howard. Authorities believe that she was another victim of Glatman’s depravity. If this is the case‚ it may have been his first foray into sexual assault and murder rather than the heinous acts he would commit in the coming years.  Whether Glatman is responsible for her death or not‚ it is not known how many other murders he may have committed while still in Colorado.  The Legacy of Horror Harvey Glatman’s brief but gruesome reign of terror left an indelible mark on the cultural psyche of 1950s America.  The moniker “Glamour Girl Killer” became synonymous with the dark underbelly of the pursuit of fame and the vulnerability of those seeking recognition in the glamorous world of Hollywood.  The Glatman case also triggered a reevaluation of safety measures in the modeling and photography industry. It prompted a collective awareness of the potential dangers that lurked behind seemingly innocuous opportunities.  The era of blind trust in photographers and the allure of instant fame underwent a seismic shift. Individuals became more cautious and vigilant.  Glatman himself may not be remembered by every actress and model‚ but the legacy of his evil has influenced each of their lives to keep them safe from similar sociopaths.  References Geringer‚ Joseph. “Harvey Murray Glatman: First of the Signature Killers.” Crime Library. https://www.crimelibrary.org/serial_killers/predators/glatman/7b.html.  History.com Editors. “Serial Killer Harvey Glatman is Executed.” History Channel: This Day in History. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/a-serial-killer-is-executed.  The Longmont Times-Call. “‘Lonely Hearts Killer’ confessed to 3 murders.” The Denver Post‚ May 9‚ 2008. https://www.denverpost.com/2008/05/09/lonely-hearts-killer-confessed-to-3-murders/. The post Harvey Glatman: The Glamour Girl Killer of the 1950s first appeared on History Defined.

In a sit-down on Bil Maher's 'Club Random' podcast‚ Adkins says that the 'silly' scandals only propel the superstars' careers. Continue reading…