Using a new technique that makes it easier to precisely measure the number of chromosomes in ancient DNA‚ researchers have identified the earliest known cases of two genetic disorders.Ancient DNA can provide us with useful insights into our ancestors‚ but unfortunately‚ samples can degrade or become contaminated over time‚ making it more difficult to analyze. One of the problem areas is in detecting differences in the number of chromosomes‚ such as extra or missing copies – this is known as aneuploidy.To combat this‚ the research team developed a new computational method to detect more variation when counting the number of chromosomes‚ particularly the X and Y (also known as the sex chromosomes) in a human genome. Most human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes‚ including the sex chromosomes. Females usually have two Xs (XX)‚ whilst males have an X and a Y (XY).The new method was applied to a dataset from the Thousand Ancient British Genomes project and identified five individuals with sex chromosome aneuploidies‚ two of whom are the earliest known people to have had a genetic disorder.“Through precisely measuring sex chromosomes‚ we were able to show the first prehistoric evidence of Turner syndrome 2‚500 years ago‚ and the earliest known incidence of Jacob's syndrome around 1‚200 years ago‚” said Kakia Anastasiadou‚ first author of the study describing the findings‚ in a statement.Turner syndrome is characterized by one X chromosome instead of the usual two‚ while Jacob’s syndrome is characterized by an extra Y chromosome.Aneuploidy in sex chromosomes can sometimes affect development; the bones of the individual with Turner syndrome indicated that they had not gone through puberty or menstruation‚ though they were believed to have been around 18 to 22 years old. However‚ analysis also revealed that only some of the cells had just one copy of the X chromosome‚ whilst others had the usual two. This is known as mosaicism.The study also identified three people with Klinefelter syndrome (an extra X chromosome‚ XXY) who lived in a range of time periods. An infant from the Iron Age was also revealed to have Down syndrome‚ the result of an extra copy of chromosome 21 – this is an autosomal aneuploidy‚ meaning it affects a chromosome that isn’t a sex chromosome.“It’s hard to see a full picture of how these individuals lived and interacted with their society‚ as they weren’t found with possessions or in unusual graves‚ but it can allow some insight into how perceptions of gender identity have evolved over time‚” said Anastasiadou.Pontus Skoglund‚ fellow author and evolutionary geneticist added: “Our method is also able to classify DNA contamination in many cases‚ and can help to analyse incomplete ancient DNA‚ so it could be applied to archaeological remains which have been difficult to analyse.”“Combining this data with burial context and possessions can allow for a historical perspective of how sex‚ gender and diversity were perceived in past societies. I hope this type of approach will be applied as the common resource of ancient DNA data continues to grow.”The study is published in Communications Biology.

There’s nothing like a cup of hot brown water to start your day. For some it’s the taste‚ while others seek the energy boost‚ but does tea or coffee have more caffeine? The answer changes depending on how you do your brew‚ so let’s dive into it.How much caffeine does tea have?Tea is the warming beverage you get from pouring boiling water over fresh or dry leaves from the Camellia sinensis plant. There are over a thousand types of tea but they mostly fall into the categories of green‚ black‚ white‚ and oolong.A 2008 study that brewed 20 commercial tea products found that the caffeine content across the varieties ranged from 14 to 61 milligrams per serving. There was no particular association between strength and tea type‚ but steeping time did have a big influence on caffeine concentration.How much caffeine does coffee have?The caffeine content of coffee varies depending on the size and type of your drink. If you’re knocking back double espressos‚ you can be looking at 60 to 100 milligrams of caffeine‚ while the average cup ranges from 65 to 120 milligrams‚ according to the University of Washington.What even is caffeine?We get tired as the day goes on because of a molecule called adenosine that our brains produce more and more of from morning through tonight. As a stimulant‚ caffeine hijacks this natural process by mimicking adenosine in the brain‚ latching onto its receptors and pushing them out of the way. The resulting symptom is that we feel less tired.The caffeine content of tea leaves and coffee beans is very different to the caffeine content of tea and coffee.Image credit: YaiSirichai / Shutterstock.comDoes tea or coffee have more caffeine?You may have heard that tea has more caffeine than coffee‚ but this is rarely the case when it comes to the actual beverages. If you look at the caffeine content of each drinks’ raw ingredients‚ then tea leaves come out on top‚ with a caffeine content of 3.5 percent compared to just 1.1–2.2 percent in coffee beans‚ explains a 2009 study.Tea is created when particles move from an area of high concentration (the tea bag) to a low concentration (the hot water)‚ and it’s an example of diffusion. The end product is‚ therefore‚ a very diluted version of the raw products. This is why despite being stronger than coffee beans‚ tea typically winds up being a comparatively less caffeinated drink.The wizardry of baristas is actually a kind of science‚ because they create just the right size and shape of coffee grinds so that the flow of hot water can extract the sour coffee flavour and balance it out with the bitterness of caffeine. As physicist and nanotechnologist Dr David Hoxley told La Trobe University‚ too fine equals a strongly caffeinated bitter drink‚ while too big results in a sour-tasting coffee with a weak caffeine kick.How that extraction happens is why you get different kinds‚ like filter vs. espresso – the latter of which is pulled from finely ground coffee beans using pressurized hot water to create that oily energy boost we humans just can’t get enough of.Starting the day with a morning brew has become a widespread culture‚ but did you know that the science suggests that you shouldn’t drink coffee first thing in the morning?

One sneaky bird escaped from Colchester Zoo in the UK last week by hitching a ride on an unsuspecting visitor. The bird in question is a rainbow lorikeet‚ and is pretty much the least inconspicuous escapee possible as its brightly colored feathers don’t exactly fly under the radar. Despite this obvious disadvantage‚ it's been on the lam ever since.The intrepid avian made a break for it on Saturday‚ January 6‚ hopping onto a visitor as they left its enclosure. According to the Colchester Gazette‚ zookeepers were unable to remove the bird before it flew off and it was last seen hiding in the trees opposite the zoo's nature area.“The bird flew into nearby tall trees and when keepers attempted to clear the area and get some ladders to entice the bird down‚ it flew off towards the back of the zoo‚” a spokesman for Colchester Zoo reportedly said. “Keepers assembled to try and get it to fly back towards the zoo as they could see it‚ but to no avail.”Colchester Zoo in Heckfordbridge‚ Essex‚ has a walk-in enclosure for rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus moluccanus)‚ a colorful parrot commonly found in Australia‚ which can have a surprising taste for meat. Visitors can purchase a cup of nectar to feed the birds and encourage them to land on them – although they do not usually leave with them.While the fugitive remains at large‚ zookeepers are doing their best to tempt it back to its flock‚ moving the remaining birds to their outdoor enclosure in the hope that it will hear their vocalizations and come back. They also left a crate of nectar out overnight‚ but the runaway bird didn’t take the bait.“Staff remain on watch and we will continue to do everything we can to get the lorikeet back safely‚” the spokesperson added.It has been suggested by one expert that the plucky bird may be able to survive in the wild‚ even despite the current cold weather. “If it survives the winter‚ it could continue out in the wild‚” Nick Moran‚ training manager at the British Trust for Ornithology‚ told Southend Echo.If it does make it‚ it could join the likes of Flamingo 492‚ another avian absconder who was last seen living it up in Texas having been on the run since 2005.

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Name: Matt Basos Location: Owego‚ New York Date: Summer of 2022 It was summer of 22′ and I had two different experiences in two days. The first‚ me and a new friend were hanging out down by the Susquehanna River (on water’s edge) when my friend started to find little trinkets‚ like a Native American-type and he was showing me how to spot things like that and wood things. I started to feel like we weren’t alone. Oh boy‚ my feelings were right‚ and my friend pointed to the apparitions of the Native American children standing across on the other side of the river‚ just standing‚ not moving or anything. It was a hell of an experience to witness something like that‚ and knowing that Indians used to live right here! I felt they were just making sure we weren’t disrespectful to their old inhabitance. My next experience happened the very next day at a local cemetery. I am no stranger to this cemetery in particular‚ I go here often. Although this was my first time cemetery encounter. It was getting dark‚ but it was still a little light out. I was trying to locate my grandparents’ graves‚ and I was getting pissed I couldn’t find them (I know they’re buried in this cemetery for certainty). Long story short‚ after bout two hours‚ no such luck! Crap. I never did find them (I feel like something or someone ethereal was messing with me). For whatever reason‚ I was not going to be visiting Grandma and Pappy this day. After this crazy confusion and disbelief I can tell you with certainty that every part of me just wanted to leave and forget this awful trip‚ but just the opposite happened. I was stuck. Literally nothing I tried to do would get me out of there. I was just being pulled into it like a vacuum. That’s the best way I can really explain this. I wanted to leave and that wasn’t happening. It was really strange‚ I never had an experience like this before‚ and I’ve had a few weird things happen to me–more than a few‚ actually‚ but things got weirder as this time vortex was sucking me into this hole. It started to get creepy. Let’s say that‚ and it takes a hell of a lot to creep me out. I then saw some apparitions about 20 yards away. It was an older couple just standing and staring in my direction. That in itself wasn’t just startling‚ it didn’t bother me. It was the next ghost of a woman (right against her grave‚ crying‚ and it made me sad because I think her son was also buried at the same spot–he died young). I wasn’t trying to stare because this felt awkward. I was sitting on the bench that went with these two graves I noticed I felt like I was an intruder. I got that feeling because this woman was crying over her son and I’m noticing. I’m sitting on their spot. It took me a good few seconds taking in all this weirdness to hop up and get off their seat. I couldn’t help staring when you get to witness something so paranormal. I just stood there until I pulled myself away. I just wanted to get the hell out of there‚ and now it was almost dark! Crap! I don’t want to be in a cemetery after dark. I felt this experience really opened me up to things and feelings I’ve never felt before. After having a near panic attack sometimes shortly after‚ I got my ass outta there! I remember it was dark–really dark–when I was kicked out of that vortex‚ and my experience ended pretty much right then and there.

Colorful is at it again with new Nvidia RTX 4070 Super designs that are also available for the RTX 4070 Ti Super and RTX 4080 Super. While Colorful may primarily cater to the Asian market‚ it's not impossible to get your hands on one of its GPUs in North America or Europe‚ you just need to be wary of who you're buying from. Four new designs have been revealed during CES 2024‚ including an amazing holographic card that will make your gaming rig pop. While the RTX 4080 Super looks set to take its place as one of the best graphics cards you can buy‚ why settle for a basic design when you could have one of these instead? Continue reading Colorful’s new RTX 4070 Super will make your case shine‚ literally MORE FROM PCGAMESN: GeForce RTX 4060 review‚ DLSS explained‚ Best graphics cards

From Dragon Ball to Dragon Quest‚ Chrono Trigger and more‚ the visual design of Akira Toriyama is unmistakable. In his new game Sand Land‚ the legendary creator is returning to his 2000 manga series‚ which is also set to receive a new animated show in 2024 on Disney+. Along with announcing the Sand Land release date‚ developer ILCA and publisher Bandai Namco show off the vehicle combat we’ll get to experience in the upcoming action RPG‚ and it looks like a high-octane blast in the vein of Armored Core 6 and Mad Max. Continue reading Sand Land release date set for new game from Akira Toriyama MORE FROM PCGAMESN: Best anime games‚ Best RPG games‚ Best JRPG games

Hotline Miami remains one of the best PC games of all time. Vivid‚ violent‚ surreal‚ and stylish‚ its combination of neon gore and pounding dance music creates a dizzying aesthetic unlike any other top-down game ever made. Hotline Miami 2 was a capable sequel‚ but with the retro ‘90s renaissance and the rise of indie FPS hits like Dusk‚ Turbo Overkill‚ and Cultic‚ the shooter genre has become defined by variations on Doom‚ Quake‚ and Half-Life. Hotline Miami 3 may never happen‚ but a new independent 2D indie game comes pretty close. Available to play as of today‚ this is Kusan City of Wolves‚ and it feels basically like a new Hotline Miami game. Continue reading We basically just got a new Hotline Miami game