Photo by John Goodridge 2011 Our Top 10 Joan Jett songs list presents some of the best Joan Jett songs the ex-Runaways guitarist and singer has released during her long solo career. Joan Jett has come a long way since she stood beside Cherie Currie singing “Cherry Bomb” in The Runaways. Joan Jett moved on from her tenure as a Runaway in 1981 with her breakthrough album and hit single “I Love Rock and Roll.” The song turned out to be the biggest hit of her career. Ultimately‚ the success of the single “I Love Rock and Roll” thrust her into The post Our 10 Favorite Joan Jett Songs appeared first on ClassicRockHistory.com.

Far from the archaeological hotspots of the world like the Fertile Crescent or Italy that produce new finds every month‚ an incredible discovery on the Arabian Peninsula shows how organized and complex societies were 4‚000 years ago. Back then‚ the Arabian Desert had mostly changed into the dry‚ sandy environments we know them to be […] The post Discovery of Immense Fortifications Dating Back 4‚000 Years Enclose Khaybar Oasis in Northwest Arabia appeared first on Good News Network.

Author of How to Prep When You’re Broke and Bloom Where You’re Planted online course Making your home safer seems more important than ever in these days of lax punishment for criminals. Why get a job if you can just steal from people and spend a couple of hours in jail before being released on your own recognizance? Protecting yourself by making your home harder to break into and capturing the footage you need to defend yourself against criminal charges if you fight back is more important than ever. Here are some inexpensive home security to make your home a little bit safer. There are other ways‚ like securing your exterior doors with better hardware and frames or installing ballistic windows. Of course‚ you want to be well-armed and trained. But the options in this article are quick and easy to obtain. Anyone can put them into place‚ they don’t run afoul of any local politics‚ and they cost less than $100. Add braces to windows. Don’t let your windows be opened from the outside. Add simple braces to the inside to keep them from being raised up or slid over. If your home has a lot of windows‚ you can start out by securing just the downstairs windows. What I like about these braces is that I can still have my windows open slightly for fresh air‚ but they won’t be easy to move far enough to allow someone to slip in without breaking the window and making a commotion. Unlike those fancy (and expensive) security bars that go on the outsides of windows‚ these braces can be easily removed for escape in the event of a fire. You don’t want to turn your home into a prison from which you cannot escape if necessary. Add wedges near bedroom doors. If an intruder breaks into your home‚ you may need to retreat while waiting for help to arrive. It could also happen when you aren’t at home‚ and vulnerable family members may not be prepared to engage an intruder. While it’s always best to replace interior doors with sturdier doors in better quality doorframes‚ a quick and inexpensive way to at least slow down the intruder is door wedges. You can have the alarm on these on or off. I leave the alarm on when I’m at hotels but off at home. I tuck the one in my home behind the door on the floor so that I can always quickly access it. (Incidentally‚ I actually carry one of these in my purse‚ too‚ in the event I ever need to barricade a door.) If you don’t want the kind with a shrieking alarm‚ you can get these plain rubber ones. The advantage to these is the holes in them – you can run some string or ribbon through them and hang them from interior door knobs. It’s true that there are bigger‚ sturdier devices‚ but I like the speed and ease with which the wedges can be deployed. Consider cameras. This suggestion will not work for everyone‚ but you may want to consider having a camera in your home near doors and entry points. Particularly if you are a gun owner‚ a camera can help to end the “I said‚ they said” nature of a violent interaction. I wouldn’t want a camera such as this to be set up in my main living areas for privacy reasons‚ but aimed at my front and back door‚ it seems like a pretty good idea. It can also record intruders when you aren’t at home‚ which means you may have a better chance of recovering stolen goods. You may also want cameras outside your home pointing at entries. If you choose to go with such an option‚ look for a device that is motion-activated. Decide whether you want the device to stream to your phone or to record on an SD card‚ and think about power options such as solar or long-term batteries. Get a door intercom Many home invasions have begun with what seems like an innocent knock at the door. But then‚ when the homeowner opens it‚ the culprit shoves their way in. Instead of a regular doorbell‚ consider a door intercom. Popular in secured entry apartment buildings‚ visitors have to ring the bell‚ which you can then answer inside‚ almost like a phone call. You can speak to them and find out who’s at the door (and why they’re there) without opening it‚ which adds to your safety. You can speak and provide instructions‚ such as‚ “Thank you‚ I can’t come to the door right now. Please leave the package on the porch.” If your intercom is paired with a camera so you can see who is on the other side‚ all the better. However‚ the wireless intercom is a less expensive option. Add a driveway alarm. These are really great‚ and I had one when I lived in the country. A driveway alarm has sensors that alert you when someone crosses in front of them onto your property. This brand is inexpensive yet highly rated. A little more advance warning before someone gets to your door can give you valuable time to get the kids inside or just to be aware that somebody is there. These are motion-activated and play a little melody when they detect motion. You can play around with the sensitivity and angles so that you aren’t alerted when local wildlife crosses your driveway – this can take a bit of trial and error. Small inexpensive home security changes add up. This is by no means a complete list of ways to improve your home security. I recently added braces to the windows in my current home‚ and it got me thinking about inexpensive home security improvements that can be made on tight budgets.  All these are renter-friendly and simple to install. Beef up your security with one item a month and make your home a little bit safer. I don’t expect to see crime rates going down any time soon‚ so it’s up to us to level up our home security. Probably the most important thing of all can’t be bought. It is being aware and listening to your gut. The book The Gift of Fear by Gavin De Becker is a classic for a reason. If someone isn’t supposed to be at your house‚ you are under no obligation to let them in. Just because a person knocks doesn’t mean that you have to answer the door. If something feels wrong‚ it probably is. Listen to your instincts and you’ll be safer anywhere you are. What are some cheap options for improved‚ inexpensive home security that you recommend? Have you tried any of the recommendations listed here? Have crimes increased where you live? Let’s discuss it in the comments section. About Daisy Daisy Luther is a coffee-swigging‚ adventure-seeking‚ globe-trotting blogger. She is the founder and publisher of three websites.  1) The Organic Prepper‚ which is about current events‚ preparedness‚ self-reliance‚ and the pursuit of liberty; 2)  The Frugalite‚ a website with thrifty tips and solutions to help people get a handle on their personal finances without feeling deprived; and 3) PreppersDailyNews.com‚ an aggregate site where you can find links to all the most important news for those who wish to be prepared. Her work is widely republished across alternative media and she has appeared in many interviews. Daisy is the best-selling author of 5 traditionally published books‚ 12 self-published books‚ and runs a small digital publishing company with PDF guides‚ printables‚ and courses at SelfRelianceand Survival.com You can find her on Facebook‚ Pinterest‚ Gab‚ MeWe‚ Parler‚ Instagram‚ and Twitter. The post 5 Inexpensive Home Security Devices to Help You Stay Safer appeared first on The Organic Prepper.

In what may turn out to be the most pivotal election case since Bush v. Gore‚ the U.S. Supreme Court issued a short order on Jan. 5 granting the request by former President Donald Trump asking the court to overturn the Colorado state Supreme Court’s Dec. 19 decision disqualifying him from appearing on the state’s presidential primary ballot. The U.S. Supreme Court moved with unprecedented speed; Trump filed his petition for certiorari on Jan. 3‚ and the court granted the appeal only two days later. The case has been put on what‚ for the Supreme Court‚ is a “rocket docket.” Trump’s brief and any amicus briefs supporting the former president in Trump v. Anderson have to be filed by Jan. 18; the challengers’ brief and amicus briefs supporting Trump’s removal have to be filed by Jan. 31. Trump’s reply brief is due on Feb. 5‚ and oral arguments will be held on Feb. 8.  There is no doubt that getting into the Supreme Court for the Feb. 8 oral argument will be the hottest ticket in town since either the Dobbs case overturning Roe v. Wade or the case challenging the constitutionality of Obamacare‚ when people started lining up the night before at the court’s location behind the U.S. Capitol. The court is also sure to be flooded with amicus briefs on both sides‚ given the key importance of this case to the 2024 election. In fact‚ just before the court issued its order late in the afternoon on Jan. 5 accepting the case‚ 27 states‚ led by the attorneys general of Indiana and West Virginia‚ Todd Rokita and Patrick Morrisey‚ filed an amicus brief on Trump’s side urging the court to take the case as soon as possible to “head off the chaos that the Colorado decision will produce” and “erase a standardless political judgment” that violates the Constitution. The chaos the states warn about is very real given that there are more than a dozen of these challenges underway in different states. Moreover‚ like Colorado‚ the Maine secretary of state has also disqualified Trump from her state’s ballot‚ while other states like Minnesota and Michigan have rejected these challenges. One thing to keep in mind: Trump will remain on the presidential primary ballot in Colorado despite the Colorado court’s 4-to-3 decision declaring that Trump was disqualified pursuant to Section 3 of the 14th Amendment. In its Dec. 19 order‚ the Colorado court said that if review was sought in the U.S. Supreme Court by Jan. 4—the date the Colorado secretary of state had to certify the candidates’ names on the presidential primary ballot—the secretary would “be required to include President Trump’s name on the 2024 presidential primary ballot until the receipt of any order or mandate from the Supreme Court.” Since Trump filed his petition on Jan. 3 and the Supreme Court did not immediately reject it by the Jan. 4 deadline‚ his name will appear on the ballot. As I have previously explained‚ there are numerous reasons‚ both constitutional and statutory‚ why the Colorado court’s decision was wrong. Section 3 of the 14th Amendment‚ which was aimed at preventing members of the Southern Confederacy who had engaged in insurrection and rebellion from serving in the federal or state governments‚ does not apply to Trump because he was never an “officer of the United States‚” a precondition for the application of Section 3. The Supreme Court has previously held that an “officer of the United States” is a term that only applies to individuals appointed to posts within the executive branch‚ not those elected. Furthermore‚ Congress has not passed any legislation providing a means to enforce Section 3‚ and there are serious questions of whether Section 3 is even still legally viable because of two amnesty acts passed by Congress in 1872 and 1898. The first in 1872 removed all “political disabilities” imposed by Section 3 with certain exceptions related to the Civil War‚ and the second in 1898 got rid of those remaining exceptions with no language preserving the disqualifications of Section 3 for future cases. Additionally‚ Trump has never been convicted or even charged with insurrection or rebellion‚ and was‚ in fact‚ acquitted of “incitement of insurrection” by the Senate after his second impeachment. Thus‚ there are numerous reasons for the court to overturn the Colorado court’s misinterpretation and misapplication of the 14th Amendment‚ a decision that effectively disenfranchised the almost 4.5 million registered voters in Colorado whose right to make their own choice about who should be a candidate for president was stolen by four judges. If the U.S. Supreme Court doesn’t overturn this misguided decision‚ millions of voters in other states will be similarly disenfranchised‚ striking a devastating blow to the democratic process. Have an opinion about this article? To sound off‚ please email letters@DailySignal.com‚ and we’ll consider publishing your edited remarks in our regular “We Hear You” feature. Remember to include the URL or headline of the article plus your name and town and/or state. The post Trump’s Ballot Disqualification Case Reaches Supreme Court appeared first on The Daily Signal.

By the early 1880s encounters with eastbound American Indian delegations arrayed in furs‚ buckskins and eagle-feather warbonnets had become rather commonplace‚ their arrival in Washington‚ Chicago‚ Baltimore‚ Boston and other big cities provoking curious glances and photo ops. Easterners might spot Sac and Foxes on museum visits‚ Osages sharing lobster with congressmen or Sioux entering the White House grounds to speak with the “great white sachem.”   One cool night in March 1882 at Harvard’s Hemenway Gymnasium gathered New Englanders watched with rapt attention as Zunis filed out from beneath the balcony to center stage. Turbaned heads held high‚ clad in moccasins‚ leggings and navy pullover shirts bound with red sashes and dripping with shell-and-turquoise necklaces‚ the stoic quintet was a revelation to the Eastern audience members‚ whose idea of Indians was‚ as journalist Charles F. Lummis put it‚ “a hazy cross between a cigar-store wooden eikon [sic] and dime-novel scalp taker.”   The Zunis were priests of the Bow Society‚ a secretive order charged with the tribe’s welfare. Leading them‚ hushing the crowd in harangues of Zuni and English‚ was one of the oddest figures the elites had ever seen—a pale‚ long-haired man of delicate build dressed like the others but with the added flourishes of glittering conchos hammered from coins‚ resplendent garters‚ beaded bracelets‚ hooped earrings and a scalping knife in a flamboyant brass-buttoned sheath.   Aside from his mustache‚ he looked more Indian than his entourage. But Frank Hamilton Cushing had been born a quarter century earlier in Pennsylvania and raised in western New York. A sickly child who barely survived infancy‚ he’d grown to be a self-taught prodigy who‚ smitten by Indian lore‚ studied nature‚ learned to replicate arrowheads and birchbark canoes‚ and‚ at age 17‚ published his first scientific paper. Dropping out of Cornell University‚ he hired on with the Smithsonian Institution to curate exhibits under the tutelage of Western explorer and geologist John Wesley Powell‚ founding director of the national museum’s Bureau of Ethnology. Powell dispatched “Cushy‚” as colleagues knew him‚ to New Mexico to live among Pueblo dwellers‚ hunt for relics and “lost civilizations‚” and publish his findings.   While carrying out Powell’s mandate‚ Cushing unexpectedly “turned Zuni‚” learning their complex tongue‚ absorbing their lifeways and recording their rituals. To gain entrance into the Bow Society‚ he collected a Havasupai scalp—presumably from a corpse. Philosophically tolerant‚ a quick study in linguistics and proficient in herbal cures‚ he was soon adopted into the tribe‚ the Zuni dubbing him Tenatsali‚ or Medicine Flower.   By the spring of 1882 he’d been living among the Zunis two years. As promised‚ he would now share his world with his hosts. Coincidentally‚ Tenatsali also needed cash to further his work for the bureau. So‚ in a timely ploy arranged with Powell and journalist Sylvester Baxter of the Boston Herald‚ he would both raise funds and‚ hopefully‚ escape proffered Zuni matrimony by wedding longtime fiancée Emily Magill come July.   This night in March the crowd quieted‚ and the lights dimmed. On a signal from Tenatsali his quintet launched into a heel-and-toe stomp dance‚ drums pounding to wails‚ chants‚ keening war cries and the rise and fall of feathered prayer sticks.    At the final thud Cushing took the podium to explain to attendees—in English and Zuni—what they had seen‚ describing tribal land and the mode and habits of the people. Then‚ with dramatic flair‚ the white Zuni lapsed into bilingual fragments of indigenous poetry that began “May-a-wee! May-a-wee!” (“Spirit of the Antelope. Spirit of the Antelope!”)   “He sang in a sweet voice‚” fellow ethnologist John Gregory Bourke recalled of Cushing‚ “a little bit tremulous from nervousness.” There followed more dances‚ drumming‚ creation tales and courtship chants‚ all translated by Medicine Flower. The exotic presentation ended with a Zuni elder beseeching the Great Spirit for a bountiful harvest for their kind American hosts. Bostonians leaving the Harvard campus that night gushed over the spectacle they’d witnessed and opened their financial coffers to Cushing.   “It was‚” Lummis wrote‚ “the ‘cleverest’ thing that has ever been devised and carried out by a scientific student anywhere.” Cushing showed he could “out-Zuni the Zunis‚” wrote Baxter in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine. As spring lapsed into summer‚ the entourage encored at Massachusetts’ Wellesley College and in churches‚ clubs and theaters in Salem and Philadelphia‚ feasting on “oysters and frozen pudding and cake”—a far cry from such traditional dishes as fried maize tortillas stuffed with roasted locust. In one reported side venture the Zunis waded into the Atlantic Ocean to draw sacred seawater from the “Ocean of Sun Rise.”    Cushing’s Zuni-inspired road show under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution’s Bureau of Ethnology brought him a raft of attention and exposed a brewing scheme to grab Zuni lands. Here he poses in Zuni garb surrounded by tribal trappings in an 1895 canvas by Thomas Eakins. On his return to Washington with the Zunis‚ Cushing was the talk of the town. Artist Willard Metcalf “took notes on all that occurred” and sketched Medicine Flower in full regalia. Portraitist Thomas Eakins rendered him in oil among Zuni accoutrements. Cushing also sat for a portrait by Powell’s staff photographer John Karl Hillers. By day the celebrated ethnologist labored at his desk‚ polishing his field notes into lyrical books on the Southwest‚ Zuni life and esoteric religious rites‚ their eventual publication opening a rift between him and his adoptive Zunis. By night he and the priests performed. Few knew he was plagued with tapeworm and diverticulitis‚ prompting hospital stays‚ stomach pumping and fad diets that left him gaunt and debilitated.   Meanwhile‚ his effective advocacy on behalf of the Zuni thwarted a brewing land-grab scheme by Senator John A. Logan of Illinois‚ eventually resulting in Cushing’s permanent recall to the Smithsonian‚ where he transcribed Cheyenne sign language before venturing south to research extinct Calusa settlements along Florida’s southwest coast. Battling illness‚ mosquitoes and the sweltering heat‚ he managed to write a landmark journal and unearthed a cache of masks‚ figurines and pottery that remain on display in the Marco Island Historical Museum.   Cushing’s work and life came to abrupt end in the spring of 1900 amid a research trip to Maine. One evening while dining‚ he swallowed a fish bone that scored his throat. The resulting hemorrhaging claimed his life on April 10. He was only 42. Some Zunis deemed it retribution for his having broken tribal taboos by revealing their sacred rituals. Others wept.   Contemporary Zunis reportedly remain wary of anthropologists. Artist Phil Hughte’s cartoon collection A Zuni Artist Looks at Frank Hamilton Cushing gently parodies the tribe’s ambivalence regarding his subject’s intrusion into Zuni culture—seen either as an act of betrayal or as a sincere attempt to understand it.   Though in retrospect his methods pose ethical dilemmas‚ Cushing—the first known anthropologist to have interpreted tribal peoples cross-culturally as a “participant observer” and to have employed relativism to find value in their world—is regarded by many as a brilliant researcher ahead of his time. He published more than a dozen books‚ and universities still teach his immersive method as “reflexive anthropology.” Thus‚ from academe’s halls to the American West there remains a unique historical niche for Frank Hamilton “Medicine Flower” Cushing.  this article first appeared in wild west magazine See more stories SubscriBE NOW!  

For the sick‚ half-starved inhabitants of Tenochtitlán‚ island capital of the beleaguered Aztec empire‚ the new year of 1521 offered only severe hardship and continued bloodshed. Over the past eight months the city’s quarter million residents had suffered through the deaths of two emperors‚ Montezuma II and his brother Cuitláhuac; the loss of the entire upper echelon of the empire’s military and political elites to a cowardly Spanish massacre; and a 70-day scourge of smallpox that killed tens of thousands and claimed Cuitláhuac’s life‚ on December 4. His nephew Cuauhtémoc‚ as 11th Aztec emperor (known as the huey tlahtoani‚ or “great speaker”) and commander in chief‚ was left to defend the city against a coalition army of aggrieved Indians and determined Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés.   A claim that Aztecs conflated Cortés with Quetzalcoatl‚ the feathered serpent god depicted here‚ may be a Spanish fiction. After reaching Hispaniola in 1506‚ Cortés prospered in the West Indies. Several years of civil service in Cuba‚ in the wake of its 1511 conquest by Diego Velásquez de Cuéllar‚ had earned him an encomienda‚ a large estate complete with thousands of indigenous laborers compelled to work in mining and agriculture. Appointed governor of Cuba‚ Velásquez was planning to finance his own campaign of conquest on the mainland of Mexico when he sent his secretary‚ Cortés‚ on a limited mission to explore the coast in 1519. Cortés and several veteran officers‚ however‚ opted to pursue a far more ambitious‚ albeit unsanctioned‚ undertaking—the expansion of the Spanish empire into Mexico and beyond‚ in the name of Christianity‚ while acquiring vast wealth‚ land and renown for themselves.   Disembarking at Tabasco on March 12‚ Cortés and 630 Spaniards moved inland and encountered the Mayans of Potonchán‚ who answered his request for talks with torrents of arrows‚ spears and stones that had little effect on Spanish armor. Facing overwhelming numbers‚ Spanish soldiers armed with harquebuses‚ crossbows‚ pikes and steel swords and accompanied by heavy artillery‚ mounted lancers and war dogs routed some 10‚000 attackers‚ after which the defeated Mayans provided Cortés with 20 women slaves‚ among them the Nahuatl-speaking Malinche‚ who became Cortés’ invaluable interpreter‚ consort and mother of his first son.   Hernán Cortés. Sailing north along the coast‚ the Spaniards came ashore near San Juan de Ulúa on April 21 and‚ in a veiled attempt to legitimize their expedition‚ founded a new colony at Veracruz “in His Majesty’s name.” Cortés then marched north to Cempoala‚ home to the Totonacs‚ where for the first time the conquistador leader moved to exploit a tributary population’s bitterness toward Tenochtitlán. Resentful subjects of the empire since 1480‚ the Totonacs forged an alliance with Cortés‚ who directed them to cease paying tribute‚ which could include military service‚ gold‚ foodstuffs‚ trade goods or captives (some of the latter were enslaved‚ while others were ritually sacrificed and eaten). After scuttling all but one of his ships (which sailed for Spain carrying slaves and treasure to be presented to Charles V‚ king of Spain and Holy Roman emperor)‚ Cortés pushed inland on August 16 accompanied by 800 Totonac warriors.   Cortés and his host had barely entered Tlaxcalan territory when they were ambushed by a disciplined force of warriors led by their commander in chief‚ Xicotencatl the Younger. Home to upward of 150‚000 people‚ Tlaxcala was a confederation of four hill provinces united against their Aztec archenemies in Tenochtitlán‚ who for decades had oppressed them with embargoes on salt‚ gold and cotton and demands for captives as tribute. After several clashes with the Spaniards‚ Xicotencatl the Elder and the city’s other lords halted hostilities and invited Cortés into their capital on September 23. Awed by the expedition’s horses and gunpowder weapons‚ Xicotencatl the Elder‚ who like Cortés was looking for powerful allies‚ agreed to an alliance (see “The Warriors Who Nearly Destroyed Cortés—Before Joining Him‚” by Justin D. Lyons‚ online at HistoryNet.com).   this article first appeared in Military History magazine See more stories Subscribe now!   On November 8‚ with 2‚000 Tlaxcalan warriors‚ porters‚ guides and cooks added to the Spanish ranks (the Totonacs had returned home)‚ Cortés boldly marched into Tenochtitlán‚ where Montezuma extended the Spaniards a diplomatic if wary welcome. A week later events on the Gulf of Mexico gave Cortés a pretext to act. After Aztec tax collectors in the town of Nauhtla demanded local Totonacs pay their customary tribute and were refused‚ fighting broke out‚ and the Aztecs slew several Spaniards and Totonacs. Accusing Montezuma of collusion in the bloodshed‚ Cortés brazenly arrested the stunned emperor and ordered him to reside in the Spanish quarters under guard. After getting assurances of his safety from Malinche‚ the shaken emperor acquiesced‚ allowing Cortés to usurp his host and take effective control of the city for the next six months.   King Charles V. The Spaniards had amassed eight tons of looted gold and silver when‚ with Cortés absent from the city‚ his deputy‚ Pedro de Alvarado‚ led an unprovoked attack against celebrants at the Festival of Toxcatl‚ hacking to death hundreds of senior military and political leaders and their families. The atrocity touched off a violent citywide revolt that trapped the Spanish/Tlaxcalan forces inside their quarters under a rain of spears‚ stones and arrows from surrounding rooftops. Cortés returned on June 24‚ 1520‚ to find Alvarado’s actions had put the entire expedition in peril‚ leaving the Spaniards no choice but to flee the city with their sick‚ wounded‚ artillery and treasure in tow.   At midnight on the rainy night of June 30‚ Cortés led his assembled host—1‚300 Spaniards and 2‚000 allies—from Tenochtitlán onto the Tacuba causeway‚ heading west out of the city. The van had marched but a quarter mile along the causeway when the escape attempt was discovered. Hundreds of canoes soon filled surrounding Lake Texcoco‚ bringing the long column strung out along the span under withering missile fire while warriors streamed out of the city on foot to attack the column from the rear. After six terrifying hours Cortés and other survivors stumbled ashore‚ having lost as many as 800 Spaniards and more than 1‚000 allies killed‚ captured or drowned‚ along with most of the horses and all the gunpowder‚ cannons and treasure.   Montezuma II. Xicotencatl the Elder. Incredibly‚ the crushing defeat—recorded by the Spanish as La Noche Triste (“The Night of Sorrows”)—wasn’t enough to convince the redoubtable Cortés to abandon the campaign. Most of his veteran captains and mounted lancers‚ his interpreter‚ Malinche‚ and shipwright Martin López‚ the one man who could construct new warships for a return assault on Tenochtitlán‚ had survived the carnage. Gathering his wounded‚ hungry forces—about 500 Spaniards and 800 Tlaxcalans—Cortés led the small band 150 miles through hostile territory armed only with swords‚ crossbows‚ lances and pikes‚ reaching Tlaxcalan territory on July 9.   As Cortés himself recovered from a fractured skull‚ his fortunes turned for the better. Xicotencatl the Elder refused Cuauhtémoc’s offer of tribute relief and instead agreed to a new “perpetual alliance” with Cortés‚ while supply ships from Spain and Cuba—the Crown having dismissed mutiny charges against the expedition leader—arrived at Veracruz laden with men‚ horses‚ weapons‚ gunpowder and provisions. In August‚ backed by 2‚000 loyal Tlaxcalans‚ Cortés captured the mountaintop redoubt of Tepeaca‚ a critical Aztecan ally‚ then used it as a base to subdue the surrounding villages. Some towns submitted voluntarily. Others were sacked‚ their male populations executed‚ their women and children branded and sold into slavery. By autumn 1520 Cortés was the strongest entity in the vast flatlands between the Popocatépetl and Pico de Orizaba volcanoes and had effectively cut off Tenochtitlán from the Gulf of Mexico. Before leaving Tepeaca‚ Cortés tasked López with constructing a fleet of 13 brigantines at Tlaxcala using native labor and salvaged hardware‚ after which the finished ships would be dismantled‚ carried over the mountains‚ reassembled and launched on Lake Texcoco.   Intent on first subduing the cities ringing the lake‚ Cortés gathered 550 Spanish infantry‚ 40 horsemen and 10‚000 handpicked Tlaxcalans and in late December 1520 marched for Texcoco‚ still nominally an Aztec ally. As the Spaniards approached‚ they were met by emissaries from rebel Texcocan warlord Ixtlilxochitl II‚ who joined the advance with his own warriors and thousands of canoes. Arriving at Texcoco‚ Cortés and his growing force found it virtually abandoned‚ its tlahtoani and citizens having fled across the lake to Tenochtitlán. After sacking the city‚ Cortés pronounced Ixtlilxochitl Texcoco’s new tlahtoani‚ at a stroke bloodlessly adding another powerful ally to his ranks. The consequent Aztec loss of Texcoco‚ with its bountiful harvests and strategic location on the lake’s eastern shore‚ was a crippling blow to Tenochtitlán. As occurred at Tepeaca‚ the Spaniards’ success compelled the lords of neighboring cities to visit Cortés’ camp and offer their allegiance.   Despite the Spaniards’ advantages in arms and armor‚ Cortés small landing force was no match for superior Aztec forces. The key to victory was support from Indian allies. In early January 1521‚ on learning that Chalca cities south of the lake were restive‚ Cortés led 200 Spaniards and 4‚000 allies to sack Iztapalapa‚ while his lieutenant Gonzalo de Sandoval evicted Aztec garrisons from Chalco and Tlamanalco‚ loosening Tenochtitlán’s grip on the region. At the urging of his two powerful allies‚ Cortés further isolated Tenochtitlán by subduing Tlacopán‚ the last city-state of the Aztec Triple Alliance. (In 1427–28 Itzcoatl‚ the fourth Aztec emperor‚ had led Tenochtitlán‚ Texcoco and Tlacopán to decisive victory in their rebellion against Azcapotzalco‚ after which the victors had formed the Triple Alliance to share in future wars of conquest. By 1519‚ after nearly a century of aggressive expansion‚ the alliance was dominated by Tenochtitlán‚ its borders stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico south almost to Guatemala‚ which extracted tribute from nearly 500 cities and towns in the Valley of Mexico and beyond‚ backed by the constant threat of military force.)   After Sandoval repulsed a major Aztec attempt to retake Chalco on March 25‚ Cortés moved to subdue the region south of Lake Texcoco. With 300 infantry‚ 30 horsemen‚ 35 crossbowmen and harquebusiers‚ and 20‚000 Tlaxcalan/Texcocan allies he seized Tlayacapan and Oaxtepec‚ then sacked Cuernavaca (April 13) and Xochimilco (April 16)‚ further isolating Tenochtitlán from sources of supply and reinforcement. After five months of campaigning‚ Cortés had subdued or accepted the submission of almost all the cities on the lakeshore and in the Valley of Mexico‚ had received supplies and reinforcements‚ and was ready to march for Tenochtitlán. Intent on obtaining Cuauhtémoc’s unconditional surrender‚ Cortés was prepared to destroy the city block by block and let his allies sack it if necessary.   Cortés received good news when he returned to Texcoco: The brigantines were ready. Averaging 50 feet in length (Cortés’ flagship‚ La Capitana‚ was 65 feet long)‚ each was armed with two guns and carried a captain‚ 12 oarsmen‚ six harquebusiers and six crossbowmen. The Spaniards launched them on Lake Texcoco on April 28. Cortés organized his remaining forces into three infantry divisions under Alvarado‚ Sandoval and Cristóbal de Olid‚ their objective to seize control of the main causeways into the city. Each division was allotted some 150 foot soldiers‚ 30 horsemen‚ 15 crossbowmen and harquebusiers and a detachment of native allies numbering around 8‚000. Thousands more Texcocans and Tlaxcalans would follow Cortés’ brigantines in a flotilla of canoes commanded by Ixtlilxochitl‚ and the combined fleets would support the land assaults‚ blockade the city and destroy enemy vessels.   The Nahuatl-speaking Mayan captive woman Malinche (gesturing at center) served as Cortés’ interpreter and consort‚ facilitating his diplomatic efforts. Alvarado and Olid departed Texcoco first‚ arriving at Tlacopán on May 25. The next morning they rode to Chapultepec‚ on the lake’s western edge‚ broke through the Aztec defenses and destroyed the aqueduct there‚ permanently severing Tenochtitlán’s source of fresh water. Over the next 75 days the city’s citizens would have to rely on grossly inadequate supplies of brackish water extracted from wells and springs.   Versus Armor Tipped with razor-sharp obsidian points like that above‚ Aztec spears and arrows had little effect on Spanish armor. Cortés’ men carried harquebuses‚ crossbows and swords and were supported by artillery‚ mounted lancers and war dogs. That said‚ they were few in number. With his ground units deployed‚ Cortés committed the brigantines to the fight on June 1. Observing smoke signals rising from the tiny island city of Tepepolco‚ warning Cuauhtémoc of the Spanish advance‚ Cortés landed with 150 men and wiped out that city’s entire garrison. Setting off once more‚ Cortés’ warships smashed through a flotilla of 600 Aztec canoes sent to intercept them‚ the brigantines’ high decks thwarting boarders and providing cover for harquebusiers and crossbowmen to fire and reload. “Nothing in the world gave me such joy as to see all 13 sails with a fair wind scatter the enemy‚” recalled Sandoval‚ who observed the engagement from Iztapalapa. Following in Cortés’ wake‚ the Texcocan canoes destroyed any Aztec canoes that remained afloat. Exploiting his success‚ Cortés sailed on and seized the key fortress of Xoloc‚ on the southern causeway from Iztapalapa to Tenochtitlán. Olid then joined Cortés and Sandoval at Xoloc‚ further improving their strategic situation.   For his part‚ Cuauhtémoc was directing operations from a canoe in the lake‚ sending waves of Aztec warriors armed with spears and steel arrows (fashioned from Spanish swords retrieved from the lake) against Cortés‚ Sandoval and Olid at Xoloc and Alvarado at Tlacopán. Meanwhile‚ Aztec laborers erected fortifications‚ opened breaches along each causeway to close the roads to Spanish horsemen and planted sharp stakes in the lake’s shallow waters to pinion the brigantines. The emperor’s aggressive tactics and vast manpower reserves made Cortés’ advance slow and costly.   In mid-June‚ however‚ Sandoval sailed north of the city and blocked the last open causeway‚ leading from Tlatelolco (a subject of Tenochtitlán since 1473) to Tepeyac. Tenochtitlán was surrounded‚ cut off from all supplies‚ food‚ water and hope.   On June 10 and again on the 15th‚ as Sandoval and Alvarado pressed their respective attacks along the northern and western causeways‚ Cortés led Olid’s division on major assaults into the city from the south‚ encountering fierce Aztec resistance before withdrawing. A pattern soon emerged: Escorted by the brigantines‚ the Spaniards and their allies advanced each morning as far as possible into the city and fought all day before falling back to their fortified camps in the evening‚ destroying buildings along the way. Aztec laborers appeared each night to again dig ditches in the causeways‚ forcing the attackers to fill them in again the following day. By late June the besiegers were penetrating into the city at will‚ though Cortés was well aware of the danger of being ambushed and trapped inside the city. The tenacity of the defenders—facing land and water assaults daily on three fronts—was astounding.   As Aztec fortunes waned‚ more of its former allies joined Cortés‚ including contingents from Huexotzinco and Xochimilco. Morale inside the city plummeted when no festivals were held or crops were planted in June. The lack of able-bodied commoners available to sow crops brought on starvation and finally famine.   A massacre of Aztec leaders prompted a revolt in Tenochtitlán‚ forcing Cortés into a costly withdrawal on June 30‚ 1520‚ recorded by the Spanish as La Noche Triste (“The Night of Sorrows”). Tenochtitlan‚ Aztec City-State. An increasingly desperate Cuauhtémoc abruptly changed tactics and moved his remaining warriors to the neighboring island suburb of Tlatelolco‚ whose narrow streets and fortified marketplace precinct were better suited to urban warfare. Believing the Aztecs were fleeing‚ Cortés led a three-pronged attack against Tlatelolco on June 30 that he hoped would end all resistance. After initial gains‚ the attackers fell into an ambush and‚ with their withdrawal route blocked‚ suffered a stinging defeat in which some 20 conquistadors and 2‚000 allies were slain. Worse yet‚ dozens of Spaniards and allied warriors were captured and ritually sacrificed. After watching their comrades slaughtered‚ most of the remaining allied warriors melted away‚ leaving Cortés to fear another Noche Triste.   In the final crisis of the campaign Cortés dispatched Spanish/allied contingents to aid two of his new allies against Aztec threats. Two quick victories restored the strategic advantage to Cortés‚ and the indigenous army that had abandoned him returned‚ leaving Cuauhtémoc unable to exploit his victory. After his allies returned‚ daily incursions into both Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlán proper resumed‚ and though several brigantines had been lost‚ the allied fleets still controlled Lake Texcoco‚ and the blockade of the city remained in place.   Tactical Takeaways Enemy of my enemy. Cortés shrewdly allied with the Aztecs’ bitter enemies and disaffected tributary states. Without them the Spanish could never have prevailed. Carrot and the stick. Cortés’ combination of diplomacy and violence bore fruit. By contrast‚ a deputy’s decision to massacre Aztec leaders nearly cost the Spaniards their lives and an empire. But can you keep it? Cortés conquest was undoubtedly a signal achievement. But after a few centuries of Spanish rule‚ the subject states of New Spain revolted. By mid-July conditions within Tenochtitlán were appalling. Sick‚ starving refugees filled the streets‚ tribute was being interdicted and most of the chinampas (floating gardens) that provided the bulk of the city’s food had been destroyed. On their daily sorties the attackers had taken to dismantling entire city blocks‚ tearing down temples and houses to give Spanish horsemen room to operate and crossbowmen and harquebusiers fields of fire.   By month’s end Aztec attacks on the Spanish camps had ceased and exhausted laborers were no longer able to sever the causeways. Aztec prisoners reported that the city’s inhabitants were starving‚ and Cuauhtémoc had resorted to conscripting women to fill his ranks. Early on July 27 Cortés was at Xoloc when he saw smoke rising from Tlatelolco’s main temple‚ a sign Alvarado had overrun the last Aztec line of defenses there and captured the great marketplace‚ ending all organized resistance. Cuauhtémoc refused to surrender‚ though‚ prolonging his people’s suffering‚ and it wasn’t until August 13 that he was apprehended while fleeing across the lake with his family. With Tenochtitlán reduced to smoking ruins‚ the Aztec empire had ceased to exist. Brought before Cortés‚ Cuauhtémoc was tortured in a futile attempt to discover the whereabouts of any stashed gold‚ then was forced to play the role of puppet ruler before being executed on false charges in 1525.   After reaching Tenochtitlán in September 1520‚ smallpox claimed almost 100‚000 citizens’ lives. In the ensuing decades epidemics of measles‚ whooping cough‚ mumps‚ influenza and typhus helped reduce the population of central Mexico from the more than 8 million when Cortés landed to little more than 1 million a half century later. The steady depopulation of the Taino peoples of Hispaniola due to disease and overwork—their numbers fell from 200‚000 in 1492 to 90‚000 in 1515—forced its Spanish governor in February 1510 to authorize the transport of 250 African slaves from Spain to work its gold mines. In August 1517 Charles V authorized the governor to import 4‚000 more. Meanwhile‚ in the two centuries after 1492 some 750‚000 people left Spain to escape poverty or seek adventure in the New World.   With almost no oversight from the mother country Cortés and his men acted as a law unto themselves‚ destroying and founding new cities and turning entire conquered populations into indentured servants‚ their legacy one of conquest‚ colonization‚ depopulation and exploitation. Indeed‚ at their peak fully a quarter of all imperial Spanish revenues would be bullion from Mexico and Peru; 180 tons of gold and 16‚000 tons of silver reached Spanish shores from the New World between 1500 and 1650‚ fueling Spain’s rise as a superpower and funding Charles V’s wars in Italy and against the Protestant Reformation.   This depiction of the fall of Tenochtitlán hints at the dark future that lay in store for its survivors‚ thousands of whom would succumb to disease. The conquest of central and southern Mexico was followed by the violent subjugation of the rest of Mesoamerica—comprising the modern countries of Nicaragua‚ Costa Rica‚ El Salvador‚ Honduras‚ Guatemala and Belize—and parts of South America. Gradually‚ Franciscan friars arrived to spread Christianity‚ bureaucrats replaced the conquistadors‚ and in 1535 Antonio de Mendoza became 1st Viceroy of New Spain. “The conquistadors‚ who put an end to human sacrifice and torture on the Great Pyramid in Mexico City‚” wrote historian Victor Davis Hanson‚ “sailed from a society reeling from the Grand Inquisition and the ferocious Reconquista and left a diseased and nearly ruined New World in their wake.”   John Walker is a California-based freelance writer and a Vietnam War veteran. For further reading he recommends Tenochtitlán 1519–21: Clash of Civilizations‚ by Si Sheppard; Conquistadores: A New History of Spanish Discovery and Conquest‚ by Fernando Cervantes; and Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power‚ by Victor Davis Hanson. This story appeared in the Winter 2024 issue of Military History magazine. historynet magazines Our 9 best-selling history titles feature in-depth storytelling and iconic imagery to engage and inform on the people‚ the wars‚ and the events that shaped America and the world. subscribe today

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