from The National Pulse: Vice President Kamala Harris‘s presidential campaign is implying they will attempt to force key counties in battleground states to keep counting votes until they attain victory. In a recent press call, a senior Harris campaign official emphasized Democrats would work to ensure they hit their ballot marks in certain localities even if President Donald […]

  The Carnegie libraries were part of a philanthropic venture by steel industrialist Andrew Carnegie. There were 2,509 libraries built between 1883-1929 with 1,689 of them being in the United States and the rest in over 8 other countries. While they were originally connected to Carnegie himself, and places that were significant to his background, funding was opened to grants places could apply for which expanded their reach.   Who Was Andrew Carnegie? Andrew Carnegie, 1905. Source: National Portrait Gallery   Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland on November 25, 1835. While he would become one of the richest men in the steel industry in the United States, he had more humble beginnings. His father was a loom maker and the economy in Scotland and shifts with the Industrial Industry meant that it was harder to make ends meet. Eventually the Carnegie family moved to the United States in Allegheny, Pennsylvania where there was a large Scottish population.   Carnegie took a job in a factory in a cotton mill as a bobbin boy for $1.20 a week while still going to night school. He moved on to become a messenger boy and became an assistant of Thomas Scott in the Pennsylvania Railroad. This is the company he worked his way up in while making investments and helping to form different companies.   The Carnegie Steel Company Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Works plant in Pennsylvania by Detroit Publishing Co. Source: Library of Congress, Washington DC   Eventually he moved back to his hometown area, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and built the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Mill, essentially starting the Carnegie Empire. His company became the Carnegie Steel Company in 1899 when all his smaller companies were brought together, one of the largest steel companies in the world. He was interested in different philanthropic causes and after selling his company to J.P. Morgan’s United States Steel Company for $250,000,000 he focused on these projects, including his Carnegie Libraries. He married Louise Whitfield in 1887, and they had one daughter, Margaret Carnegie. Carnegie died August 11, 1919.   A Mini History of Libraries The Library of Alexandria, 19th-century artistic rendering by German artist O. Von Corven, based partially on the archaeological evidence available at that time. Source: Wikipedia.   Libraries had originally been places of classical documents, tablets and archives. One of the most famous libraries in the ancient world was the Library of Alexandra in Egypt, the largest and most historically significant library from the 3rd century B.C.E. to 30 B.C.E when the Romans took over Egypt and it accidentally and tragically burned down, and many parts of history lost.   Private libraries were also common at that time, with limited access depending on who you were. The first type of public library was created in the Roman Empire, with different emperors and leaders trying to outdo each other in designs. These public libraries had scrolls that readers could read and copy. The idea of libraries, both public and private, was spread across many different countries and cultures throughout history.    In 19th century Britain there were public libraries known as subscription libraries that were members only and required payment for memberships which would bar access for only people who could afford this. Skipping ahead the first tax paid library like how public libraries are today in the United Staes was in New Hampshire 1833.   Carnegie Libraries Then Floor plans for the Carnegie Public Library in Fort Worth, Texas, by Herbert H. Green ca. 1900. Source: Library of Congress.   In the mid-19th century, Carnegie said that he would be spending some of his money by “establish[ing] a free library in any community that is willing to maintain and develop it.” He wrote the essay originally titled “Wealth,” now known as “The Gospel of Wealth.” The first library that he established was in his own birthplace in Dunfermline Scotland that opened in 1833. Meanwhile, the first Carnegie Library in the United States that didn’t have specific ties to Carnegie’s past was in Fairfield, Iowa in 1893. By 1908 his staff, including James Bertram, oversaw the library applications and grants instead of Carnegie himself.   Looking at the plans of the different libraries many of the designs emulated the architectural style of Italian Renaissance and Beaux-Arts although that wasn’t a requirement of the designs. The application process required for the applicants to demonstrate the need for a public library, provide site where the library would be built, be responsible in paying the staff and maintaining the library, use public funds to run the library not just private donations, and allow free access to everyone who wanted to use it.   Carnegie Libraries Now Woodys Library Restaurant originally a Carnegie Library in Carmel, Indiana. Source: Woodys Library Restaurant.   Not all the Carnegie libraries have survived over time. Some have been demolished or repurposed due to a lack of use or a change in the setup of the town or the library simply getting too big for its original space. The photo shows Woodys, which was a Carnegie Library in Carmel, Indiana that when sold was turned into a restaurant. It contains most of the original architecture and has some details of the library for patrons to enjoy. This is just one example of someone buying one of these historic libraries and changing it into something entirely different. These repurposed spaces include museums, city halls, businesses, and private residences.   Thankfully some of these libraries have remained in their original form. Carnegie had created these grants and funded this project because of his drive to allow public libraries to be available to as many people as possible, following his desire to donate his money to many different projects as possible. A famous quote of his says, “the man who dies thus rich dies in disgrace.” While not all these libraries remain, and some were even taken down, many will live on for future generations to enjoy, as beautiful examples of architecture and philanthropy.

  In March 1864, late in the Civil War, the Confederacy had taken to using some irregular tactics to continue its fight against the more-industrialized Union. Cavalry raiders were used to attack occupied territory behind Union lines, hoping to demoralize, intimidate, and disrupt Union operations. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest took the opportunity to attack the 600-man Union force at Fort Pillow with his larger group of around 2,000 men.   Victory Goes to the Confederacy A drawing showing the alleged massacre of African American Union soldiers by Confederate troops during the April 1864 Battle of Fort Pillow. Source: Dickinson College   The Battle of Fort Pillow, also known as the Fort Pillow Massacre, was a Confederate victory over a significantly smaller number of Union soldiers. Fort Pillow, located in Tennessee near the banks of the Mississippi River, had initially been seized by the Union in 1862, shortly after it had been built by the new Confederate States of America. Two years later, Confederate cavalry raids in the state, largely occupied by the Union, targeted the small fort. On April 12, 1864, Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest attacked the garrison.   Heavily outnumbered, the Union garrison held out for hours before a final, decisive Confederate attack at about 4:00 PM. In addition to greater numbers, Confederate sharpshooters also held higher ground near the fort and were able to shoot down into it. The Union troops, a mix of freshly-trained African American soldiers from the United States Colored Troops and pro-Union white volunteers from Tennessee, were massacred by the victorious Confederates. Later, one of General Forrest’s men confirmed that the cavalry leader had given the order to fire on the surrendering Union soldiers.   Timeline of the Battle of Fort Pillow A map showing the cavalry raids of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest in Tennessee during the Civil War. Source: Tennessee State Library & Archives   In March 1864, Confederate cavalry general Nathan Bedford Forrest began a raiding campaign from northern Mississippi, aiming for Paducah, Kentucky. These raids were intended to intimidate any who might consider cooperating with the Union authorities and seize supplies for a struggling Confederacy. Far less industrialized than the Union, the South suffered from constant supply shortages during the Civil War.   On March 25, Forrest’s troops successfully raided Paducah but could not dislodge Union troops from nearby Fort Anderson.   Swinging into Tennessee, Forrest successfully raided the towns of Union City and Bolivar before focusing on Fort Pillow, which had been in Union hands since mid-1862.   Early on the morning of April 12, 1864, Forrest’s advance units reached the fort and began fighting. Morning fighting saw the death of the Union fort’s commander, Major Lionel Booth. Multiple Confederate attacks on the fort were thrown back, and a truce was called in the afternoon to request that the outnumbered garrison surrender.   When the Union officers refused to surrender, Forrest launched a final, concerted attack that broke Fort Pillow’s defenses.   What Caused the Battle of Fort Pillow? A Confederate cavalry raid into a Union town in 1864, with such raids intended to garner supplies and threaten Union operations. Source: Dickinson College   The Battle of Fort Pillow was the result of Confederate cavalry raiding, which had become a popular tactic. On horseback, mounted soldiers could travel further and faster than infantry and attack areas far behind the front lines. Thus, they could have a significant psychological impact on the enemy, both military and civilian. Even though the Union had the military advantage in the war, thanks to its larger population and much greater industrial base, the Confederacy could maintain political pressure to end the war by launching successful cavalry raids into Union territory.   What turned the Battle of Fort Pillow into the Massacre of Fort Pillow was the presence of Black Union soldiers. The participation of Black soldiers had been authorized in the North on July 17, 1862, with combat service beginning in 1863. Combined with the Emancipation Proclamation, which President Abraham Lincoln had made after the Battle of Antietam, the presence of Black Union soldiers in the South was an outrage. The Confederates’ discovery of Black soldiers at Fort Pillow led to rage, which resulted in the execution of many surrendering Union troops, both Black and white.   Why Was the Battle of Fort Pillow Significant? A photograph of United States Colored Troops in 1865, about three years after the first African American soldiers had been allowed to fight for the Union. Source: American Battlefield Trust   Despite the small size of the battle, its ferocity and the atrocities inflicted upon surrendering Union troops made it very newsworthy. It was also one of the first battles in which Black soldiers participated, many of whom were killed despite surrendering to the larger Confederate force. These war crimes revealed the challenges facing Black soldiers during the Civil War: although many African Americans wanted the opportunity to fight to help free their enslaved brethren in the South, the Confederacy would treat any captured Black soldiers terribly.   Fortunately, President Abraham Lincoln acted to force the South to treat any captured Black soldiers as lawful combatants rather than escaped slaves, as the South wished to do. Lincoln threatened to treat captured Confederate soldiers in a similar manner to how the Confederacy dealt with captured Black soldiers (and their white officers). This prevented the South from being as brutal as it might have been toward captured Black soldiers, though they were typically still mistreated. In the North, news of the Massacre of Fort Pillow was used as a rallying cry for months afterward to encourage support for the war and defeating the Confederacy.   5 Facts About the Battle of Fort Pillow A map of Fort Pillow State Park in Tennessee along the Mississippi River, which became a protected area in 1971. Source: Tennessee Department of Environment & Conservation   1. Casualties Casualties at the Battle of Fort Pillow contrasted greatly between the two sides. The Union defenders of Fort Pillow suffered six hundred casualties, which was most of the entire garrison. Some 230 were killed, 120 were wounded, and 30 were captured.   The Confederates, by contrast, suffered only fourteen men killed. Among the Union troops, most of the African Americans were killed, with only 58 of 262 Black soldiers still alive after the battle.   2. Commanders Union forces were led by Major Lionel F. Booth. Booth was killed early in the fighting, and command fell to the relatively inexperienced Major William Bradford. Bradford was executed after the battle, with his body left unburied. The execution by angry Confederates was likely influenced both by Bradford’s initial refusal to surrender the fort and his willingness to work with African American soldiers. Booth’s widow, Elizabeth Booth, famously urged President Lincoln to ensure that the widows of Black soldiers killed at Fort Pillow would have the same pension benefits as the widows of white soldiers. This was passed by Congress in the summer of 1864.   Confederate forces were led by Cavalry General Nathan Bedford Forrest. Unlike most of his colleagues, who had attended West Point and served in the Mexican-American War, the 40-year-old Forrest entered the war as a civilian volunteer who used his personal wealth to volunteer to raise and outfit a unit. In the summer of 1862, Forrest quickly became the master of the cavalry raid, starting his meteoric rise to becoming a general. After Fort Pillow, Forrest continued his cavalry raids that antagonized the Union. Following the end of the Civil War, Forrest became infamous for founding the Ku Klux Klan, which inflicted violence and terror on African Americans in the South.   3. Number of Forces Involved An 1892 lithograph depicting the Fort Pillow Massacre on April 12, 1864. Source: New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs   Roughly 2,000 Confederate soldiers assaulted the fort, with estimates ranging from 1,500 to 3,000. These men were a portion of General Forrest’s total command of about 7,500 troops. Defenders of Fort Pillow numbered about 600, meaning they were outnumbered by about three-to-one. The 600 Union soldiers were a mix of United States Colored Troops (USCT) and white volunteers from Tennessee, who were largely viewed as traitors by their fellow Southerners.   4. Visiting Fort Pillow Today Today, the battlefield can be seen as part of the Fort Pillow State Park in Tennessee. The 1,600-acre park is about 40 miles west of Memphis, and the inner part of the fort has been reconstructed. Visitors can watch a video documentary about the battle and request guided tours of the park. On-site, there is a museum that is open from 8:00 AM to 4:00 PM. For those who want to explore on their own, there are approximately 20 miles of hiking trails.   5. Trivia: Confederate Brutality Backfired The Battle of Fort Pillow was strategically inconsequential for the Confederacy, as General Forrest quickly abandoned the fort and continued on his raiding course. His massacre of the garrison, however, became a rallying cry for the Union, especially Black soldiers. The atrocity only strengthened President Lincoln’s resolve to push on to a military victory over the South. Therefore, Confederate brutality at Fort Pillow, instead of intimidating the North and dissuading Black men from volunteering for military service, backfired terribly.   Aftermath of Fort Pillow: Holding the South Accountable US President Abraham Lincoln responded to news of the Fort Pillow Massacre by convening his cabinet and seeking a harsh response to the war crime. Source: Library of Congress   President Abraham Lincoln was appalled by the murder of surrendering Union soldiers and vowed not to let the war crime go unpunished. On May 3, 1864, he convened his cabinet and sought answers on how to respond to the massacre. Cabinet secretaries prepared their responses in writing, with many advocating efforts to determine the identities of which Confederates participated in the massacre. Some wanted retaliation, with an equal number of Confederate prisoners to be executed as surrendering Union soldiers had been killed at Fort Pillow.   Lincoln decided against formal retaliation, but did threaten the Confederate government with it. The president argued that only winning the war would lead to justice. He met with Elizabeth Booth, widow of Union commander Major Lionel Booth, on May 19. After the meeting, Lincoln asked US Senator Charles Sumner to craft a bill that would provide equal pension benefits to the widows of Black soldiers as to the widows of white soldiers. On July 2, 1864, this bill was signed into law.

  By 1812, Napoleon seemed to be on the brink of complete European conquest. His armies had humbled the might of the Prussians and tied down the British on the Iberian Peninsula. Although the United Kingdom would prove to be an unattainable goal, Napoleon still sought glory. He turned his attention to the East and prepared for a campaign that he hoped would net him the biggest territorial gains of his career as the French emperor.   The flat lands of Russia were inviting, and the promise of victory was tempting. The decision to invade, however, would prove to be a fatal mistake for Napoleon’s imperial ambitions. The Russians would not be easy to conquer. They knew their land well, and they knew how to fight, using tactics for which Napoleon’s army was completely unprepared.   The French invasion of Russia would mean the death of many hundreds of thousands.   Events Before the Invasion Meeting of Napoleon I and Alexander I on the Neman, 25 June 1807 by Adolphe Roehn, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1807, Napoleon had beaten the Russians at Friedland and concluded the Polish Campaign with a resounding and decisive victory. Following this, Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I of Russia signed the Treaties of Tilsit. Despite the events that had taken place beforehand, the two emperors took a liking to each other and formed a friendship.   Political needs, however, began to sour this relationship almost immediately. Napoleon turned Poland into the Duchy of Warsaw, and the Russians feared that this action would lead to an independent Poland. Given the history between Russia and Poland, this development displeased the tsar.   Other strategic and social developments also led to a breakdown of relations. The proud Russian aristocracy was displeased by the alliance, which they viewed as thwarting an opportunity to exact revenge for their losses. Further afield, Napoleon’s political maneuverings denied Russia the opportunity to annex Constantinople and, as a result, cut them off from the Mediterranean.   Napoleon’s control in Europe in 1812, before the invasion of Russia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1810, developments in the Duchy of Oldenburg, southwest of Denmark, became a bone of contention. Napoleon annexed it, a move that contravened the Treaties of Tilsit. It was owned by Alexander’s sister’s father-in-law, and thus, the Russians saw it as part of their sphere of influence.   Of prime importance to the collapse of relations between the two empires, however, was the issue of trade with Britain. Russia had agreed to abide by Napoleon’s wish to blockade the United Kingdom and starve it economically, but Russia was experiencing economic difficulties of its own, and abiding by Napoleon’s designs made the situation even worse. The Russians continued to trade with Britain secretly, and when Napoleon found out, he was furious.   As a result, France and Russia prepared for war. When Alexander demanded the French evacuate their occupation of the Duchy of Warsaw and of Prussia, Napoleon refused, and war was declared between the two empires.   Napoleon assembled an army of over 600,000 soldiers drawn from all corners of the French Empire. It was the biggest army ever assembled at the time. Over two-thirds of the initial force comprised Germans, Poles, Austrians, and Italians. Some of these troops had been former enemies of Napoleon and thus lacked morale in any significant quantity to fight for France.   The War Begins Monument to Barclay de Tolly in Riga, Latvia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   From the very beginning, Napoleon referred to the invasion in terms of propaganda. Calling it the “Second Polish War,” he hoped to garner support from the Poles and stated that liberating Poland was one of the major goals of the war.   The invasion of Russia began on Wednesday, June 24. Hundreds of thousands of troops from Napoleon’s Grande Armée crossed the border and continued to march towards the Russian hinterland.   With Napoleon at the head of the army, the first goal was reaching the Lithuanian city of Vilna (now Vilnius), where the Russians held substantial command functions. With 217,000 troops in the main force, Napoleon planned to defeat the main Russian forces under the command of Field Marshall Barclay de Tolly and then swing south towards Minsk.   Meanwhile, the French forces, under the command of Napoleon’s younger brother, Jérôme, to the south, would pin down the forces of General Pyotr Bagration in the center. By doing so, Bagration’s army would eventually be surrounded and forced to surrender.   The plan, however, failed to materialize in the way Napoleon had envisioned. He had expected the entire campaign to last less than two months. Bagration and Barclay de Tolly refused battle and pulled their armies out of harm’s way, retreating eastwards. They burned crops and resourced as they went, practicing a scorched-earth policy to deny the French army the ability to live off the land.   Jérôme, criticized for his inability to pin down Bagrations’ army, resigned from his post, and his soldiers were put under the command of Marshal Davout.   The Casualties Begin to Mount Courage of General Raevsky by Nikolay Samokish, 1912. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Knowing the risks that would be encountered in supplying his massive army, Napoleon had supplies brought in from the rear, but the terrible state of the Russian roads hampered progress. When summer rain turned the roads to mud, progress was hampered even further, and the French armies had to make frequent pauses to allow the wagon trains to catch up.   Supplies trickled in, but they weren’t enough. Napoleon’s soldiers were already growing weak, and many collapsed from exhaustion before they even had a chance to fight the Russians.   Things didn’t go perfectly for the Russians either. They were completely outnumbered. Barclay de Tolly retreated to Smolensk, where he hoped Bagration would be able to link up with him. Bagration’s forces, however, were blocked by Davout, and a battle was forced.   The Battle of Saltanovka followed on July 23, and Bagration’s forces were defeated and forced to abandon their hopes of linking up with Barclay de Tolly’s forces. This development was caused in part by poor communication, and a string of confusing orders caused Bagration to grow irritated with Barclay de Tolly, whom he blamed for the blunder. Nevertheless, the battle was not a major one, and Bagration only lost around 2,500 men.   Cossacks by Nikolai Zaretsky, 1911. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Napoleon’s army, meanwhile, was faring terribly. Disease and desertion had whittled his effective fighting force to minimal levels, and his fighting capability had been reduced to about half. All of this happened without even fighting a major battle.   At the same time, horses were dying in droves and furthering the logistic and supply problems, while Russian cossacks and partisans harried their enemies every step of the way.   In the Balance Portrait of General Pyotr Bagration by George Dawe. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On July 27, far behind the vanguard of the French forces, a Russian army under the command of Alexander Tormasov attacked the contingent of the French army sent by the Kingdom of Saxony. The Russians prevailed, and Napoleon was forced to send the Austrian Corps to bolster their allies and check Tormasov’s advance to the rear.   Meanwhile, Bagration and Barclay de Tolly had finally managed to link up their forces near Smolensk, and the two argued over whether to give battle or continue the retreat. Bagration,  who wanted to go on the offensive, managed to sway the more cautious Barclay de Tolly, and Russian armies turned around and faced the enemy. An advance force was sent west and encountered a French force under the command of Marshal Michel Ney.   The Cossacks case of Platov near Mir on July 9, 1812 by Wiktor Mazurowski, 1912. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ney won the first Battle of the Dnieper on August 14, but the Russians managed to retreat in good order back to Smolensk. Things looked better for the French when word reached Napoleon that the Russians had failed to inflict damage on the flanks. Tormasov was defeated at Gorodechno to the south, and in the north, French and Bavarian Troops prevented the Russians from making any gains, thus securing the northern flank.   Napoleon marched on Smolensk, and from August 16 to 18, the two armies were engaged in bitter fighting. The Russians finally decided to pull back, but the French hesitated in outmaneuvering their enemies and failed to block the Russian retreat, which would have made the overall strategic situation dire for the Russians. Both armies lost about 10,000 men.   The war was still not decided. Napoleon consoled himself with the idea that he would be in Moscow in a few weeks and the Tsar would sue for peace.   Alexander, deciding it was time for change, placed Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov in overall command of the Russian armies. Seventy miles west of the city, at a place called Borodino, the Russians waged battle.   The Battle of Borodino Napoleon at Borodino by Vasily Vereshchagin. Source: Public domain via Store Norske Leksikon   On September 7, the two armies met. The Russians had dug themselves into hilly terrain, hoping to halt the French advance. The forces at Borodino were evenly matched, with each army having around 130,000 soldiers. What unfolded that day was the single bloodiest day of the entire Napoleonic era, and both armies lost around a third of their troops, killed, captured, or wounded. Among the losses was Pyotr Bagration, who died from wounds inflicted at the battle.   Technically, the battle ended in a French victory, as the Russians retreated (in good order) and allowed the French to occupy the city of Moscow. However, the battle was extremely costly and far from the decisive blow that Napoleon needed. The French army lost more than 30,000 troops, while it’s estimated the Russians may have lost more than 50,000.   Disappointment Fire of Moscow by Alexander Smirnov. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the battle, Napoleon marched on Moscow. He expected to be greeted by the city’s authorities offering surrender, but when he arrived, he found an empty city. Virtually the entire population of Moscow had fled. What’s more, the city’s governor, Count Fyodor Rostopchin, had ordered key points in the city to be set on fire, and over the course of a few days, the city burnt, and French troops began looting.   Napoleon moved his headquarters to the Kremlin and sent a message to Tsar Alexander, inviting him to talk peace, but a reply never came. Napoleon waited as long as he could, hoping for a reply, but the oncoming winter and the growing number of Russian troops around Moscow convinced him and his generals that he would have to retreat to Smolensk, where there would hopefully be enough accommodations for his troops to wait out the brutal Russian cold.   Retreat Napoleon’s Retreat From Moscow by Adolphe Northen, 1851. Source: Public domain via WHE   On October 18, French forces under Joachim Murat were surprised and defeated by Kutuzov’s army at Vinkovo, and on October 19, Napoleon’s forces began their long retreat. Foremost in Napoleon’s mind was outmaneuvering Kutuzov, whose army now outnumbered the French and their allies.   The next day, French operations in Belarus were put to a halt when the Franco-Bavarian force under the command of Laurent Saint-Cyr was soundly defeated by Russians under the command of Peter Wittgenstein. At the Battle of Polotsk, the French lost another 7,000 men.   On October 24, elements of both armies clashed at Maloyaroslavets. The battle was a tactical victory for the French, but it turned into victory on the strategic level for the Russians, as they forced Napoleon to redirect his army onto a predictable route already stripped of supplies. With temperatures now dropping below freezing, the situation was irrecoverable for Napoleon.   Retreat of the French from Moscow by James McCabe. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Thus followed Russian victories at Vyazma on November 3 and at Krasnoi on November 15-18. Meanwhile, the French retreat was continuously harried by hit-and-run assaults. So many French horses had died by this point that Napoleon had little in the way of cavalry left. The French were completely at the mercy of Russian light cavalry, which could strike and disappear long before the French could respond or follow up.   Battle of Smolensk on 18 August 1812 by Albrecht Adam, ca. 1815-1825. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Lacking supplies, Smolensk was not able to support what was left of the army, and Napoleon had to continue the retreat. As the days in November grew colder, soldiers froze to death, and others became desperate for survival, ignoring orders and leaving their comrades to die by the roadside. Discipline broke down, and much of the army turned into a mass of stragglers who were unable to be used in combat. Over one thousand horses died each day from starvation and from being overworked as the French army desperately tried to push them far beyond what could reasonably be expected from horses unaccustomed to the Russian winter.   Escape Crossing the River Berizina, 1812 by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, ca. 1859-1869. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Blocking Napoleon’s army was the Berezina River, which should have been frozen to allow for crossing, but an unexpected thaw had turned the river into an icy torrent. The only bridge was at the village of Borisov, which had been captured by Russian forces under the command of Pavel Chichagov. The French launched an attack to take the town, but the Russians retreated and burned the bridge.   There was still hope for escape, however. Shallow water near the village of Studienka to the north allowed for pontoon bridges to be built. Dutch engineers worked throughout the day and night of November 25 to construct the bridges, a job which claimed many of their lives in the freezing torrent.   Meanwhile, a diversionary force was sent south to lure Chichagov’s army away from the crossing. The ruse worked, and the remnants of Napoleon’s army crossed the Berezina virtually unopposed.   The Russians were hot on their heels, however, and among swirling blizzards, much of the French rear guard was annihilated. With three Russian armies converging on the French positions, desperate defenses were put up to allow the bulk of Napoleon’s forces to continue their retreat.   Biarezina by Victor Adam. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Tens of thousands of stragglers in the rear were not lucky enough to escape. To ensure their own retreat, the French burned the pontoon bridges, leaving the stragglers to fend for themselves on the far bank of the Berezina. The Russians took many prisoners but were also in short supply of any desire to give mercy. Thousands of stragglers were simply killed.   As soon as the way was clear, Napoleon departed for Paris, abandoning the army, in order to settle rebellious sentiment in the city where there was a major threat of a coup.   In mid-December, what was left of Napoleon’s Grande Armée crossed the Niemen River to safety. Of an army that had numbered 615,000 on June 24, only around 100,000 were left.   The Russian Campaign had been a disaster of such proportions that it doomed the French Empire. Emboldened by his victory, Alexander called upon the European nations to throw off Napoleon’s yoke and rise against the French Empire. Prussia and Austria heeded the call.   So much had been lost that Napoleon would not be able to defend against the combined forces that would now drive deep into French territory, towards Paris.   The French invasion of Russia was a total disaster.   Napoleon and his armies were completely defeated and driven back to Paris by the triumphant Russians and their allies. Forced to abdicate in 1814, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean.   This, however, wasn’t Napoleon’s final chapter.

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