What Would Teddy Roosevelt Do? Vote for Donald Trump

A Campaign About Nothing

  For most of America’s history, the process of electing political representatives may be considered undemocratic by modern standards. US senators, for example, were chosen by state legislatures rather than voters, and many elections did not have a secret ballot, subjecting voters to peer pressure. The 20th century saw populist reforms that empowered ordinary citizens. These included the adoption of open primaries, or elections conducted by major political parties where registered voters could choose their preferred candidate as the party’s nominee. Which US states today have open primaries?   Setting the Stage: Conventions Over Primaries A timeline showing the dates that different party conventions are held in 2024. Source: Montgomery (TX) County Republican Party.   Prior to World War II, much of the power to pick party nominees for elected offices rested with party conventions, or meetings of party leaders. Voters would vote in November and discover which candidate their respective parties had chosen as the nominees. Many citizens felt that this system was relatively undemocratic, as several candidates often wished to be the party’s nominee for a single elected position, but voters had no say. Some complained that the party leaders at the conventions made poor choices, saddling the party with unpopular nominees who would go on to lose the general election.   A classic example occurred in 1912, when the Republican Party leadership chose to retain incumbent president William Howard Taft as the party’s presidential nominee rather than the more popular former president Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt formed his own political party and split the Republican vote in the November election, allowing Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson to win the White House in a landslide. Progressive reformers argued that competitive primaries would reveal the most popular candidates, encouraging party leaders to choose the victors as the nominees to avoid splitting the vote. During the Progressive Era of the early 1900s, party conventions began to be seen as elitist and out-of-touch.   Setting the Stage: Caucuses Over Elections A photograph of party members grouped by candidate in the 2020 Iowa Democratic caucuses. Source: Brookings Institution.   While many viewed party conventions as staid affairs of elite men in smoke-filled back rooms, some gatherings of political party members to pick nominees for office were more lively and democratic. The first caucuses, or meetings of party members to select presidential and vice presidential candidates, were held in 1804. These were replaced by conventions within a few decades, giving more power to wealthy, unelected men who could influence candidates from behind the scenes. However, at the state and local level, caucuses remained a way for voters and activists to promote candidates for the party nomination.   Caucuses were popular because they were active and engaging. Unlike elections, caucuses allowed supporters of candidates to speak on their behalf and attempt to persuade voters to shift their allegiances. These meetings were organized by the political parties and only open to party members, thus violating today’s norms like secret ballots and no politicking or electioneering (campaigning) near a polling place. Over time, caucuses have become less popular because they are often seen as confusing and potentially undemocratic: they allow louder groups to intimidate others, and voters who cannot stand for long periods may struggle to participate. Voters must physically line or group up in support of candidates and be counted by party officials, which can exclude voters with limited mobility.   Open Primaries Defined A 2019 image indicating an open primary contest. Source: Office of Pennsylvania State Senator Lisa Boscola.   Most states have adopted primary elections instead of caucuses. These look similar to general elections held in November: voters arrive and cast a secret ballot while following contemporary election rules. Open primaries are open to all registered voters, allowing them to decide which party to vote for. States with open primaries do not require voters to pick a political party affiliation when they register to vote. Thus, independent voters may participate in open primaries but not caucuses or closed primaries. When voters arrive at an open primary, they must pick a major party ballot to complete.   Growing in popularity, however, are multi-party primaries, which are even more open: voters receive a single ballot with candidate choices for both major parties. Some of these states allow multiple candidates from each party to advance to the general election, whereas traditional open primaries, closed primaries, and caucuses only allow a single candidate to contest the general election. This degree of openness, however, is typically only seen in localized elections rather than statewide (governor) or federal (US representative, US senator, president/vice president) elections.   The History of Open Primaries A pamphlet from the state of Illinois detailing its primary election laws as of July 1, 1917. Source: Library of Congress.   Primaries became increasingly popular during the Progressive Era, with voters wanting to strip power from political machines that allowed wealthy business moguls to control government services through the spoils system. By 1917, four years after the 17th Amendment to the US Constitution required direct election by voters for US senators, almost all states required primary elections for statewide offices. Most primaries were initially closed, including by race—minorities were often excluded from voting in primary elections in the South (as they were in all elections). During the 1920s and 1930s, however, states began to open their primaries and allow open primaries where independent voters could cast ballots.   As early as the 1930s, some states were trying to move past open primaries to blanket primaries, where voters could vote for all potential nominees of all parties. These faced legal challenges, with the US Supreme Court ruling in 2000 that blanket primaries violated political parties’ freedom of association. Since political parties were private entities and not government entities, they could choose to exclude non-members. However, states were able to later utilize top-two primaries, where voters participate in a nonpartisan (no political party listed) primary, with the top two candidates from each major party being placed on the general election ballot.   Which States Have Open Primaries Today? A map showing the types of statewide primary contests held by each state. Source: New Mexico Open Elections / Open Primaries.   Today, most states in the South and West have open primaries, with California, Washington, Alaska, and Louisiana the most open as multi-party primaries. Several other states in the Midwest and South have semi-open primaries where independents can pick which party ballot to vote. Oregon and Idaho are not fully open, but give the major political parties the option during each election cycle to allow independent voters to vote. Only 12 states and Washington, DC have closed primaries, where only registered party members can participate in that party’s primary process.   In some open primary states, 17-year-olds are allowed to vote if they will be 18 by the date of the general election in November. The eligibility of 17-year-olds can vary considerably because, unlike the general election, statewide primary elections are held from early spring to late summer. Twenty states and Washington, DC allow 17-year-old primary voting, which affects several thousand young people who turn 18 between the primary and general elections. However, and perhaps ironically, whether a state has open or closed primaries does not seem to affect the likelihood of allowing 17-year-olds to vote in them; some open and multi-party primary states require voters to be 18.   Semi-Open and Semi-Closed Primaries Explained A graphic explaining semi-open primaries as open to independent voters but not to voters registered with the opposing major party. Source: New Mexico Open Elections.   When the term “open primary” is used in general terms, it refers to allowing independent voters to pick a party’s ballot in the primary election. In reality, there are different types of “open” primaries. A semi-open primary allows independent voters to pick either party’s ballot, but voters who have registered as party members may only receive that party’s ballot. Basically, once a voter picks a political party, he or she cannot cross vote in the other political party’s primaries. Only in multi-party primaries can voters cross vote for Democrats for some offices and Republicans for other offices.   Sometimes, semi-open primaries are called semi-closed primaries. Semi-closed primaries may also refer to the handful of states that give political parties the option to pick whether they will allow independent voters or members of opposing parties to vote in their primaries. It may also refer to states that require party affiliation to vote in that primary but allow on-site party registration. This would technically allow independent voters to participate in the primary, but those voters might have to disaffiliate before the next primary to avoid being “locked in” to that party’s ballot.   Strategy: How Candidates Handle Open Primaries A 2020 graphic showing blue Democratic/liberal voters and red Republican/conservative voters using the same ballot box. Source: CalMatters.org.   It is important for candidates to strategize based on the type of primary to appeal to the most possible voters, particularly during a close race. Open primaries, which allow all registered voters to pick one party’s ballot, usually encourage candidates to campaign more as moderates than as partisans (strict adherents to one political party). A Democratic candidate may campaign towards the center to appeal to moderate, independent, and even Republican voters. Similarly, a Republican candidate may moderate their views to appeal to moderate, independent, and even Democratic voters.   A 2018 image encouraging readers to learn more information about primary elections in the United States. Source: Midwest Political Science Association (MPSA).   Perhaps controversially, candidates may also encourage their party’s voters to cross vote in the other party’s primary. This strategy is more common when one party has a dominant candidate who is assured of winning the nomination and can afford to redirect voters to influence the opposing party’s primary process. The goal in this scenario is to support the least competitive candidate of the rival party, hoping to saddle that party with a nominee who cannot win the general election. This is difficult to do in closed primaries: in 2022, Democrats in Wyoming had to change their party affiliation to vote in the Republican primary for incumbent US Representative Liz Cheney, who was under attack by supporters of former US president Donald Trump.   Benefits of Open Primaries Pamphlets for a November 2023 event at Arizona State University discussing independent voters in the United States. Source: Arizona State University (ASU).   Open primaries are more democratic than closed primaries because they allow independents to vote. This also increases voter turnout, which makes those states more democratic. Allowing independents to participate in primaries is also important because many independents are highly partisan (support a political party) but have not chosen or been able to register with the party. These partisan independents, often called left-leaning or right-leaning in political science, are a major component of the electorate (voters). Open primaries allow their voices to be heard.   For parties and candidates, open primaries are beneficial because they are more realistic to the conditions faced during the general election in November. Closed primaries and caucuses, which only allow registered party members to participate, may result in a highly partisan nominee who is unpopular with moderate and independent voters and liable to lose the general election. Open primaries are considered more competitive and result in stronger party nominees who are more likely to win in November. Finally, in safe states where one party dominates all statewide elections, the primary essentially is the general election, meaning those who cannot vote in the primary have virtually no voice at all in the democratic process.   Drawbacks of Open Primaries A graphic about voters switching their party affiliation, which is unnecessary in states with open primaries. Source: League of Women Voters of Delaware.   Critics of open primaries argue that the process could be sabotaged by the opposing party through cross-voting. Democrats and left-leaning independents may intentionally choose a Republican ballot to select the least-competitive candidates, hoping to saddle the Republican Party with unpopular nominees. Similarly, Republicans and right-leaning independents may choose a Democratic ballot to try to burden that party with uncompetitive nominees as well. It is difficult to determine the incidence of cross-voting, as independents may not admit to the practice.   Closed primaries limit cross-voting and thus allow parties to better select nominees favored by their members. Many may also prefer closed primaries because they reserve primary voting for party members, limiting the free rider problem. In closed primaries, only party members who are invested in the result are voting. Independent voters may be less informed about the candidates, less invested in the political process, and less likely to vote again in the general election compared to registered party members. Therefore, parties in closed primary states may feel little obligation to provide a voice to voters who are unwilling to pick a party preference.   The Future of Open Primaries Newspaper headlines circa 2023 about various US states considering changing their primary elections status. Source: Open Primaries.   Open primaries are popular with voters, and more states have made their statewide primaries open over time. This is heavily influenced by the fact that a plurality of voters are independent—about 40 percent—with only about 30 percent each being either Democrat or Republican. However, some swing states worry about cross-voting and want to maintain closed primaries, as the two political parties are roughly equally matched and are more susceptible to sabotage by cross-voting.   Some states that are becoming more competitive, such as Texas, are looking at closing their primaries to prevent cross-voting. The dominant political party in these states may fear the growing power of the opposing party, or independents who lean toward that party, and move to protect its primary elections from possible sabotage. Recently, Wyoming, Louisiana, and Tennessee made moves to close their primaries. However, Nevada and Colorado have moved to open theirs further. Overall, it appears that open primaries are likely to continue in most states due to the greater voting power of independents.

  Pirate lore often stirs up visions of remote forts and hidden coastal strongholds steeped in battles for treasure and territorial control. These places, some crafted by empires to fend off pirates, now stand as testaments to an era when corsairs ruled the seas and fortified coastal defenses were essential.   Across the globe, remnants of these defenses tell tales of sieges, trade wars, and the relentless pursuit of dominion over the world’s busiest shipping lanes. Below, you will learn about ten must-see pirate fortresses and coastal strongholds, where you can learn the real history of coastal protection and the stories of those who built and defended them.   1. Castillo San Felipe del Morro, Puerto Rico Castillo San Felipe del Morro, Puerto Rico. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic fortress, commonly known as El Morro, is located in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Its construction began under Spanish rule in 1539, with the fort evolving over 250 years into a six-level stronghold designed to protect the island from sea-based attacks.  The British, Dutch, and pirates all tried to invade Puerto Rico, but Castillo San Felipe del Morro ensured all of their efforts failed.   El Morro is today part of the San Juan National Historic Site, managed by the US National Park Service. When visiting, you’ll have the chance to explore its historical barracks, dungeons, and original cannons facing the Atlantic Ocean. One interesting thing is that the fort is also home to Puerto Rico’s oldest lighthouse, which was built in 1846.   The site is open daily from 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM, and it closes only on Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year’s Day. An entrance fee grants access to both El Morro and the nearby Castillo San Cristóbal. Make sure to book a guided tour so that you can learn the most about the rich history of the fort.   2. Gramvousa Island, Crete, Greece Gramvousa island, Crete, Greece. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Off the northwest coast of Crete, Greece, is located a charming island, renowned for its Venetian fortress and historical significance. Yes, it’s Gramvousa Island, whose fortress was built between 1579 and 1584 during Venetian rule. This fortress was strategically positioned to defend Crete from Ottoman incursions and pirate attacks. Its elevated location provided a commanding view of the surrounding sea routes, which made it a pivotal defensive structure.   In the early 19th century, during the Greek War of Independence, Gramvousa became a refuge for revolutionaries and pirates. The fortress served as a base for insurgents, and the island’s inhabitants engaged in piracy to survive, hence its nickname, “Pirate Island.”   At present, Gramvousa Island is a popular tourist destination. We encourage you to explore the well-preserved fortress, which offers panoramic views of the Cretan coastline and the turquoise waters of the Balos Lagoon.   Access to Gramvousa is typically via boat tours departing from the port of Kissamos. These excursions often include a visit to the nearby Balos Lagoon. This means you can enjoy both interesting deep history and also impressive natural attractions.   3. Fortress of St. Nicholas, Croatia Fortress of St Nicholas, Sibenik, Croatia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located at the entrance of the St. Anthony Channel near Šibenik, Croatia, this fortress is a remarkable example of Renaissance fortification architecture. It was constructed in the mid-16th century by the Venetians. The Fortress of St. Nicholas was designed to protect the city and its port from sea-based threats, particularly from the Ottoman Empire. The impressive and very unique triangular shape of the fortress, as well as its robust construction, made it a formidable defensive structure.   In 2017, the iconic site was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the “Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries.” This designation in itself shows you how important and significant the architecture and history of this fortress really are.   Today, you can explore the fortress through organized boat tours departing from the Šibenik waterfront. These tours will provide you with a glimpse into the history of the Fortress of St. Nicholas and will offer stunning views of the surrounding seascape. The interior features well-preserved gunpowder storage rooms, barracks, and defensive walls. They allow you to step back in time and experience the strategic importance of this maritime stronghold.   4. Port Royal, Jamaica Port Royal, Jamaica. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This was once dubbed the “wickedest city on earth” because of its notorious reputation as a haven for pirates and privateers in the 17th century. Located at the southeastern tip of Jamaica, it was established by the English in 1655 and quickly became a bustling hub of commerce and vice. This led Port Royal to attract figures like the infamous pirate Henry Morgan. The city’s prosperity was abruptly halted on June 7, 1692, when a devastating earthquake submerged much of it into the sea. This led to significant loss of life and infrastructure.   Today, you can still see attractions in Port Royal, such as the remnants of Fort Charles, the only fort to survive the 1692 earthquake. You can see here historical artifacts and learn about the maritime history of the city. The Giddy House, a tilted building resulting from a 1907 earthquake, provides an intriguing experience of disorientation. As for the Port Royal Archaeological Museum, it showcases artifacts recovered from the sunken city.   5. Fuerte de San Diego, Mexico Fuerte de San Diego, Mexico. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Constructed in 1617 by the Spanish Empire to protect the vital port from pirate attacks, Fuerte de San Diego was designed by Dutch engineer Adrián Boot and features a distinctive five-pointed star shape, a strategic design for defense. In 1776, a significant earthquake damaged the original structure, leading to its reconstruction between 1778 and 1783 under engineer Ramón Panón. The rebuilt fort played a crucial role during the Mexican War of Independence, notably falling to insurgent forces led by José María Morelos in 1813.   Today, Fuerte de San Diego houses the Museo Histórico de Acapulco. The museum’s 12 exhibition halls showcase artifacts from the pre-Hispanic era, colonial times, and the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. These show the significance of Acapulco, the city where the fortress is located, in global commerce. In this museum, you can explore the fort’s original architecture, including its bastions, moat, and panoramic views of Acapulco Bay.   6. Fort King George, Tobago Fort King George, Tobago. Source: Flickr   You can find this well-preserved 18th-century fortification atop Scarborough Hill in Tobago. It offers visitors a glimpse into the island’s colonial past. Constructed by the British between 1777 and 1779, the fort was designed to protect the island from potential invaders and played a significant role in Tobago’s military history. Over the years, it changed hands between the British and French, reflecting the turbulent colonial era.   Today, Fort King George serves as a historical site open to the public. Visitors can explore several restored structures, including the officers’ barracks, gunpowder magazines, prison cells, and a bell tank. The original cannons remain positioned along the fort’s walls, offering panoramic views of Scarborough and the Atlantic Ocean.   The fort also houses the Tobago Museum, located within the former barrack guardhouse. The museum features artifacts from Tobago’s early history, including Amerindian relics, military memorabilia, and colonial-era documents.   7. Fortress of Suomenlinna, Finland Fortress of Suomenlinna, Finland. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This UNESCO World Heritage Site, which you can find on a cluster of islands off Helsinki’s coast, is renowned for its historical significance and architectural grandeur. It was in 1748, under Swedish rule, when its construction began, aiming to fortify the eastern territories against Russian expansion. Originally named Sveaborg (Castle of Sweden), the fortress played a pivotal role in regional defense strategies.   Over the centuries, Suomenlinna transitioned through various sovereignties. In 1808, during the Finnish War, it fell to Russian forces and remained under Russian control until Finland’s independence in 1917. Post-independence, the fortress was renamed Suomenlinna (Castle of Finland) and continued to serve military purposes until the mid-20th century.   Today, Suomenlinna is a vibrant district of Helsinki, home to approximately 800 residents. Visitors can explore its extensive fortifications, historic buildings, and museums that chronicle its storied past. The King’s Gate, a prominent symbol of the fortress, and the Great Courtyard are among the notable landmarks. The island also offers scenic walking routes, cafes, and art galleries.   8. Fort James, Antigua Fort James, Antigua. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic fortification was constructed by the British in the early 18th century. Located at the entrance of St. John’s Harbour in Antigua, it’s named after King James II of England and was built to protect the island from potential French invasions and pirate attacks. Construction began in 1706, with significant expansions completed by 1739. At its peak, Fort James was armed with 36 cannons and housed a barracks accommodating 75 men.   Today, visitors to Fort James can explore its remnants, including several cannons, a powder magazine, and the foundations of the fort’s walls. The site offers panoramic views of St. John’s Harbour and the Caribbean Sea. While the fort is in a state of ruin, its historical significance and scenic location make it a noteworthy destination.   9. Portobelo, Panama Fortifications on the Caribbean Side of Panama, Portobelo. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic town is famous for its colonial-era fortifications and rich cultural heritage. Established by the Spanish on Panama’s Caribbean coast in 1597, it served as a crucial port for the transshipment of gold and silver from the Americas to Spain. To protect these valuable shipments from pirates and privateers, the Spanish constructed several forts, including San Jerónimo and Santiago de la Gloria, whose ruins still stand today.   In 1980, UNESCO recognized the historical significance of these structures by designating the “Fortifications on the Caribbean Side of Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo” as a World Heritage Site.   Visitors to Portobelo can explore these well-preserved fortifications that offer insights into colonial military architecture and panoramic views of the bay. The town also hosts the Church of San Felipe, home to the revered statue of the Black Christ, which attracts thousands of pilgrims annually during the Festival of the Black Christ on October 21.   10. Charles Fort, Ireland Charles Fort, Kinsale, Ireland. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This fort is a prime example of a late 17th-century star-shaped fortification. Found in Kinsale, County Cork, Ireland, Charles Fort was constructed between 1678 and 1682 during the reign of King Charles II and was designed by William Robinson, the architect of the Royal Hospital in Kilmainham, Dublin. The strategic position of the fort overlooking Kinsale Harbour was intended to protect against naval attacks, particularly from the French and Spanish.   Charles Fort actually played a major role during the Williamite War in 1690, where it endured a 13-day siege before capitulating to Williamite forces. It remained a British garrison until 1922. During all this time, it witnessed various historical events, including the Irish Civil War, during which it was partially destroyed.   Today, Charles Fort is managed by the Office of Public Works and is open to the public year-round. When there, you can explore the well-preserved bastions, barracks, and ramparts of the fort. And you’ll also enjoy the panoramic views of Kinsale Harbour and the surrounding coastline. The on-site visitor center provides historical exhibits and guided tours.

  Warfare, literature, education, and politics were long the purview of men before these five notable Latin American women made their voices heard. Many of them defied societal gender norms, facing discrimination and harsh treatment, sometimes even exile. Nevertheless, these determined women exhibited exceptional strength and courage, leading them to greatness while opening spaces for women in Latin America.   1. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Oil Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz by Miguel Cabrera, 1750. Source: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico   During the 17th century in New Spain, knowledge and education were exclusively reserved for the male world. Women belonged to other spheres of everyday life: they were expected to take care of the family and the home. Education provided to the privileged few was limited to basic literacy, as girls were primarily taught domestic labor and to exercise Christian virtues. Submissive, honest, and domestic women were desired.   Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz was born into an affluent family around 1650. From a young age, she was believed to be a prodigy due to her aptitude for learning. After serving as a lady-in-waiting to the viceroy’s wife, highly esteemed for her erudition, intelligence, and poetry, she entered a convent of the Order of Saint Jerome, where she took perpetual vows to be confined for life.   The former Convent of St. Jerome in Mexico City, along with a Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz statue, 2009. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   In her writings, she details how she became a nun in order to dedicate herself to study and scholarship. During this time, high-class women could take only one of two paths: dedicating themselves to family and home or entering religious life. As Octavio Paz astutely observes, she became a nun to be able to think. She became a self-taught scholar who challenged male privileges in order to enjoy and cultivate her intellectual pursuits.   She wrote numerous poems about life, love, and heartbreak but was a master of all genres, writing plays as well. She expressed her ideas and emotions through satire, metaphor, and philosophical reflection, driven by the pursuit of truth and the struggle for freedom.   Her style was considered inappropriate by the Christian standards of 17th-century New Spain, doubly so for a woman. Her writings were deemed “worldly”; a bishop advised her to focus on religion and leave such profane matters to men. In response, she penned a manifesto, far ahead of her time, defending women’s right to education. Her work reflects her intelligence, sensitivity, and commitment to society.   2. Eva Perón  Eva Perón with a girl in her arms during an official event in La Pampa province, 1948. Source: Municipality of Salta, Argentina   From humble origins, Eva Perón arrived in Buenos Aires at the age of 15 with the dream of pursuing acting. She gained some fame in cinema, radio, and theater before meeting her husband and future president of Argentina, Juan Perón, when she was 25.   Eva Perón managed to carve out a path in politics despite having everything against her. She was a woman and an actress, working at a time when it was not viewed favorably by society and was particularly challenging in the political sphere. Yet she continued despite the criticism. She managed to open the doors for women to participate in politics and defended the rights of those most in need. Along with her husband, she consolidated Peronism as a political and social movement. They became charismatic figures, leaders who supported the masses and gave workers a voice in changing the course of power.   Eva was either loved or hated, there was no middle ground. Confident and charismatic, she navigated criticism with grace. Her sensitivity to connecting with people and passion for her causes transcended the limits imposed by society on a first lady.   She died at the very young age of 33 from cancer, after which her embalmed body was desecrated and stolen. However, her brief years in the spotlight were enough for her to become a prominent figure in Argentina and beyond. Posthumously, she was granted the title “Spiritual Leader of Argentina.” After her death, appreciation for her grew, creating a mythology around her figure that persists today.   3. Rigoberta Menchú  Rigoberta Menchú Participates in the Opening of the 2018 Inter-American Judicial Year, 2018. Source: Interamerican Court of Human Rights   Rigoberta Menchú was born in 1959 into a Mayan peasant family in Guatemala. In her childhood, she suffered poverty, racial discrimination, and violence. At the tender age of five, she began working with her parents on farms, and in her adolescence, she was employed as a domestic worker in the capital.   During this time, Guatemala was experiencing an armed conflict between the government and a guerrilla group fighting for social justice. The government sought to suppress the movement, choosing the path of violence and extermination of the Mayan population. Rigoberta experienced firsthand the ravages of this conflict: her mother and brother were tortured and killed by soldiers, while her father was burned alive during a protest.   From a very young age, she became involved in social movements protesting violence and seeking better living conditions. Her participation earned her exile, and at the age of 21, she was forced to seek refuge in Mexico. She has continued to participate in international forums, advocating for the rights of indigenous populations and educating on the impacts of violence. As a UN ambassador and mediator in the peace process with the guerrillas, she sought to promote dialogue and social justice in Guatemala, highlighting the importance of indigenous peoples being permitted to make decisions about their own needs and rights. In 1992, she won the Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the first indigenous woman to receive the award.   4. Manuela Sáenz  Portrait of Manuela Sáenz by Pedro Durante, 1825. Source: Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia, Peru   Manuela Sáenz was born in Ecuador in 1797, the illegitimate daughter of a wealthy Spanish merchant and a lower-class Creole woman. From a young age, she was influenced by the movement for independence in the Americas, which rejected the privileges that peninsular Spaniards had over the Creoles, such as access to political positions. As a bastard daughter, she knew well what it felt like and had a rebellious spirit in her blood.   Manuela wanted to fight for freedom and not only financed the revolutionary cause but also participated in the fight herself, mounted on horseback with sword and pistol in hand. She was a great strategist and politician. She fought in the Battle of Pichincha, which won freedom for Ecuador in 1822, and the liberator José de San Martín granted her the title of Knightess of the Order of the Sun of Peru.   She met Simón Bolívar, and they quickly fell in love, becoming companions in the fight, political advisers, and lovers. Manuela firmly believed in his ideals of liberty and equality for America, so she became a key ally for Bolívar. She saved his life in the Bógota assassination attempt in 1828.   Her relationship with Bolívar should not overshadow her personal merits as a defender of the independence of South American countries and women’s rights—particularly because, in her time, such actions were not acceptable for women. Yet she was able to voice her opinion and operate at the same level as men in political intrigues. She scandalized many with her rebellious, provocative, and outgoing behavior, but above all, her influence and political power frightened the male rulers, resulting in her exile from Ecuador.   5. Gabriela Mistral Gabriela Mistral reading a newspaper during her stay in Mexico, 1948. Source: National Library of Chile   Born Lucila Godoy in 1889 in the small community of Vicuña in northeastern Chile, Gabriela Mistral’s childhood was spent surrounded by women. She was almost entirely self-taught, dropping out of school at the age of 11 but continuing to read any book that came her way. She began her path in teaching as a teacher’s assistant.   At 17, she published a column in a local newspaper titled “The Education of Women,” in which she argued that women have potential beyond homemaking and advocated for their intellectual instruction. She wrote that educating women “es hacerla digna y levantarla”—dignifies and uplifts them.   While continuing her training as a teacher, she wrote poems in her spare time until her first major literary success, which made her known throughout Latin America: “Sonnets of Death.” She wrote this work after experiencing her first disappointments in love. From then on, she began to use the pseudonym “Gabriela Mistral” for fear of affecting her job as a teacher.   Gabriela Mistral, alongside her students from the Liceo de Punta Arenas, 1919. Source: Biblioteca Nacional de Chile   In 1922, already famous, she traveled to Mexico in order to contribute to education crusades, participating in the design of a new educational program and teaching in rural and indigenous areas, primarily focused on instilling the value of reading. She put her whole soul into this task. She lived her life between indigenous peoples and high intellectual and elite groups. Later, she dedicated herself to diplomacy and held important positions as consul in Madrid and New York.   She was the first Latin American to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1945 “for her lyric poetry which, inspired by powerful emotions, has made her name a symbol of the idealistic aspirations of the entire Latin American world.” She gained prominence for her sensitivity and beautiful poems, as well as for her commitment to society, particularly to children.

  An interesting geographical fact is that Finland and North Korea are separated by only one country. That country is Russia.   It is no secret that the Russian Federation still holds the title of being the world’s biggest country. Stretching from the Baltics across eleven time zones to the western shores of Alaska, Russia is indeed a vast land full of complex peoples, nations, resources, and incredible beauty.   How exactly it got to be so big is a history of expansion, war, conquest, and politics that range across many generations of rulers and centuries of turmoil.   Medieval Beginnings A woodcut print of Ivan III entitled Albus Rex from Cosmography by André Thevet, 1575. Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the medieval era, many states evolved to form the foundation of what would later become Russia.   A group of Vikings known as the Varangians established a power base in the middle of the 9th century in what became the city of Novgorod. Looking to expand their trade potential, they then moved south and started operating from their newly founded city of Kyiv. These Varangians became known as the Kievan Rus’.   From this point, a loose collection of principalities formed in present-day western Russia. These principalities jostled for power, and their leaders vied for the title of Grand Prince of Kyiv.   These principalities were subjugated under the Mongols in the 13th century as they became part of the Mongol Empire. During this time, the Principality of Moscow emerged as a powerful state, although still a vassal to the Mongols and Tatars of the Golden Horde.   In 1380, this vassalage ended when the principalities rose up and defeated the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo, thus ending the period of Mongol rule. The Mongols returned, however, and took power once again.   The yoke of the Mongols was finally thrown off by Ivan III, also known as Ivan the Great, Grand Prince of Moscow,  who refused to pay tribute to his overlords. The insubordination led to the armies of the Golden Horde and Muscovy facing off on either side of the Ugra River.   After several weeks, the Khan decided to go home and left the Muscovites to their own devices. With the Mongols’ exodus, Ivan III pressed his advantage and vassalized the Khanate of Kazan, which ran from the south to the east of the Principality of Moscow.   The Dominance of the Principality of Moscow Map showing the expansion of the Principality of Moscow, and subsequently Russia from 1300 to 1796. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica   Following the expulsion of the Mongols from the lands of the principalities of the Rus’, Moscow became the center from which Russian expansion would take shape. Under the leadership of Ivan III, the Principality of Muscovy would become the dominant power in the region, overtaking that of Novgorod and setting in motion the events that would lead to the formation of the Russian Empire centuries later.   Ivan III then turned his military attention to the powerful state of Novgorod. He defeated Novgorod at the Battle of Shelon in 1471 and forced Novgorod to pledge allegiance to Moscow. Seven years later, Ivan III took his armies to Novgorod again and formally annexed it into the lands of Moscow.   Moscow now controlled all the lands in the north from Finland all the way to the Ural Mountains.   After the death of Ivan III, his son Vasily took over and consolidated his father’s expansion. Vasily III also expanded Moscow’s lands by conquering the small autonomous states that still existed on the borders. Pskov was annexed in 1510, Volokolamsk in 1513, Ryazan in 1521, and finally Novgorod-Seversky in 1522.   Under Vasily III’s rule, the title of tsar was officially adopted, along with the double-headed eagle that became a symbol of the Russian monarchy and the Russian state.   Further Expansion A 16th-century illustration of Moscow burning in 1571. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The rule of Vasily III was followed by that of Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible. Under the rule of Vasily III, the Khanate of Kazan had broken free of Russian vassalage to become an independent state that allied with the Astrakhan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate, and the Nogay Horde and came into conflict with Muscovy/Russia.   In 1552, Ivan IV laid siege to the capital of Kazan and put its defenders to the sword. After defeating this Tatar khanate, several other smaller states joined Russia to avoid the same wrath. By 1556, the last of the resistance was crushed, and Moscow could claim complete control over its former enemy. The Khanate of Astrakhan was also added to Russia’s territories, giving Russia full access to the Volga River basin.   Ivan IV took military action further and pressed conflict with the Tatars and other groups of people to the south. In 1571, a massive Crimean army of 120,000 soldiers marched on Moscow. With an army of only 6,000 troops, the Russians stood no chance and retreated. Moscow was burned, and the lands pillaged. Moscow, built almost completely of wood, was reduced to ashes in just three hours. Only the Kremlin was left standing.   Ivan’s brutal rule went from bad to worse as conflicts with the Swedes and the Poles also went awry, and Ivan was forced to cede lands to these enemies in the West.   At the time of his death in 1584, the country was in shambles.   Map of the Khanate of Kazan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The years that followed were miserable for the Russian people. Power struggles for the throne left the country virtually leaderless, while a famine claimed the lives of about a third of all the Russian people.   Seeking to capitalize on the disasters unfolding in Russia, Sweden and Poland attempted to establish control over Russian lands. The Poles invaded and captured Moscow, occupying it for three years before the Russian people managed to unite and cobble together a peasant army that defeated the Poles and drove them out.   Nevertheless, during this time, Russian lands were extended east of the Urals, setting the stage for huge annexations that would happen in the decades to come. Russian Cossacks came into conflict with Tatars living in the area and managed to stamp control over the region after a bitter conflict.   The Golden Age Engraved portrait of Mikhail Romanov, artist unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The end of the Rurik Dynasty and the beginning of the Romanov Dynasty ushered in an era of success and prosperity for the Russian state.   The year 1613 saw the accession of Mikhail Romanov to the throne. Although chosen for the fact that he seemed weak and easy to control, his rule was surprisingly effective. He began by attaining truces with the Swedes and the Poles, guaranteeing an end to those countries’ designs on Russian territory.   During this time, the conquest of Siberia continued. Explorers set up outposts, met with local tribes, and claimed land in the name of the Russian Empire.   Famous explorers from this era pushed even further eastwards, expanding Russian territory throughout Siberia. Pyotr Beketov founded the fortified settlements of Yakutsk, Chita, and Nerchinsk, which evolved into cities.   Map showing the extent of Russian expansion (in green) by 1636. Source: Wikimedia Commons   A Cossack explorer, Kurbat Ivanov, led expeditions to the area around the Lena River and was the first Russian to discover Lake Baikal. Ivan Moskvitin was the first Russian to reach the Sea of Okhotsk, thus becoming the first Russian to reach the Pacific Ocean via Siberia.   Vassili Poyarkov was the first Russian to explore the Amur region in the Far East, through which the Amur River runs and today forms a natural border between Russia and China. The region was later colonized by explorer Yerofey Khabarov-Svyatitsky.   Of course, the lands of Siberia were not empty. They were inhabited by local tribes that were incorporated into the Russian Empire, either by negotiation or force of arms. Depending on the situation, some tribes, such as the Yakuts, were pressured to assimilate into Russian culture, while other tribes, mostly those living in the far north, were allowed to continue their traditional ways of life. Some of these tribes continue to do so to the present day.   A Chukchi family drawn by Louis Choris (1816). Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the west of the country, expansion was brought about by conflict, as Russia had many enemies that resided on its western borders. Long-standing rivalries with Sweden, Poland, (and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) proved to be a constant threat, and Russia had to be permanently militarized.   Under Mikhail Romanov, Russia expanded its control by defeating the Cossacks between the Volga and the Ural Rivers. Mikhail, who died in 1645, was succeeded by Tsar Alexis, who would conquer lands along the Dnipro.   In 1648, the Cossacks in this region rebelled against Polish rule and asked Alexis to accept sovereignty over the area. Alexis accepted and was drawn into a long conflict with Poland over the Dnipro. The treaty that followed gave Russia sovereignty over everything east of the Dnipro, including Kyiv and Smolensk.   Following the reign of Alexis, Peter the Great (1682–1725) expanded Russian lands into the Baltics, conquering the territories of Estonia and Livonia (present-day northeastern Latvia and southern Estonia).   Meanwhile, in the east, Vladimir Atlasov explored the far northeast and discovered the extent of the Kamchatka Peninsula, which juts into the Pacific Ocean. This part of Russia would prove a costly conquest, as the Indigenous people presented spirited resistance to Russian expansion despite being wracked by diseases such as smallpox brought by the Russian invaders.   The Furthest Reaches of Siberia The wilderness of Chukotka. Source: Oleg Zotov, Ida Ruchina / Russia Beyond   At the southern end of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Itelmans launched several rebellions throughout the first half of the 18th century, but the Russian occupiers easily put down these uprisings.   To the north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Koryaks provided stiff resistance to Russian expansion, and from 1744, the Russians engaged in bitter fighting with these Indigenous people.   Even further north, decades of struggle ensued with the Chukchi people. Tsarina Elizabeth was angered by the conquest’s slow progress and, in 1742, ordered the Chukchi to be “eradicated completely.”   After several decades and seven campaigns against the Chukchi, the final lands of Siberia were under Russian control.   Catherine the Great Empress Catherine II of Russia by Alexander Roslin ca. 1780s. Source: Public domain via WHE   Catherine the Great is known as one of Russia’s greatest leaders, and the Russian Empire experienced considerable expansion during her time on the throne. One of the things foremost in her mind was expansion in the south, as Russia had no access to the Black Sea.   Catherine also strengthened control over Poland and installed a monarch, Stanisław August Poniatowski, who was loyal to her but also had to struggle with uplifting a failing state. The weakness of Poland would lead to the country losing much of its territory to surrounding powers.   Conflicts on the border with the Ottomans played into her hands when the Ottomans declared war. The Ottomans were completely defeated, and fearing Austrian intervention, a plan was put forward to give away Polish land. In what became known as the First Partition of Poland, one-third of Polish lands were given away to Austria, Prussia, and Russia.   The defeat of the Ottomans also brought about a treaty allowing Russia to occupy Crimea and surrounding territory. In 1783, Catherine violated the treaty and completely annexed Crimea. The Russians would take the port of Odesa in another conflict with the Ottomans.   Subsequent Additions  Russian expansion in Asia from 1533 to 1894. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica   In 1795, the rest of Poland was partitioned between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. After defeating Napoleon, Russia received even more lands westward. As a result of redrawing the map of Europe, most of the Duchy of Warsaw would be under Russian rule.   Further war with the Ottoman Empire also resulted in territorial gains. Russian troops came dangerously close to taking Constantinople, and in 1828, the French and British brokered a peace deal whereby the Russians were given more land on the northeast coast of the Black Sea.   In the east, Alexander II took advantage of a weakened China during the Second Opium War and pushed Russia’s borders to the Amur River at the expense of Chinese territory. In addition, more territory was taken along the coast all the way down to where the Korean Peninsula started.   In 1864, Alexander II pressed conflict in Central Asia and expanded Russia’s borders further into what was called Turkestan. Today, this area comprises Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.   Alaska Replica flag of the Russian-American Company used for the 200th anniversary of Bodega Bay (Fort Ross), 2012. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As far east as Siberia went, it wasn’t the furthest that the Russian Empire would stretch. In the 18th century, fur traders set up outposts on the Aleutian islands and moved further east, settling on the coast of Alaska. In 1799, the Russian-American Company was established to oversee the expansion and colonization of American land.   Their focus wasn’t just on Alaska. The Russians set up trading posts—Fort Ross on the California coast and Fort Elizabeth in Hawaii.   However, supplying Alaska so far from the Russian capital was a logistical nightmare, and with mismanagement from the Russian-American Company, the colony was a significant drain on the imperial coffers.   Furthermore, with deteriorating relations with Britain (which controlled Canada), Tsar Alexander II decided to sell the colony of Alaska to the Americans in 1867 to create a buffer between Russian and British territory and offset British power on the North American continent.   Modern Russia Map of Russia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the time of the Soviet Union, administrative borders were drawn. There was little reason to expect this to result in a later reduction of Russian territory. When the Soviet Union was dissolved, many of these administrative borders were used to create new independent states, such as Belarus and Ukraine.   Imperial Russian flag. Source: Dorotheum   At its height in 1895, Russia accounted for 8.8 million square miles, which is 16.92 percent of the world’s landmass. It was the third biggest empire in history after the British Empire and the Mongol Empire. Although reduced, the country today is almost twice the size of Canada.   It is a land filled with diversity in people and in its landscape, a legacy that reflects its imperial past.

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God is inviting us to ask, question, seek, and find that which transcends the natural and stretches into the unknown: the eternal.

Tajikistan, where 97% of the population is Muslim, has officially banned the Islamic hijab throughout the country. The government of Tajikistan stated: ‘Hijabs are an alien culture and a cultural invasion.…