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What Was Procopius’ “Secret History”? (& Why You Shouldn’t Trust It)
Procopius of Caesarea, one of the most famous late Roman (or Byzantine) historians, wrote the “Secret History” around 550 CE. This controversial work starkly contrasts with Procopius’ other writings, namely his “History of the Wars” and “The Buildings.” Instead of praising Justinian’s reign and his reconquest of the West, the “Secret History” is a vehement attack on the emperor and his wife, Empress Theodora – a calculated and brutal critique of the imperial couple, their advisors, and the court. We should be aware, however, that the “Secret History” is a biased work penned by a person disillusioned with the emperor’s policies or who wanted to protect himself in case of the emperor’s fall.
Procopius of Caesarea – The Man Behind “The Secret History”
Mosaic showing the emperor Justinian and his retinue, the bearded figure to the left of the emperor is probably Belisarius, 6th century CE. Source: Basilica di San Vitale, Ravenna
The “Secret History,” one of the most controversial works of late antiquity, was penned by a most unlikely writer. Procopius of Caesarea, born around 500 CE, was a late Roman scholar and historian. He was a well-educated man who became a lawyer (rhetor). This endowed Procopius with good knowledge of Latin, although he originated from the Greek half of the Empire. More importantly, Procopius became an advisor and personal secretary to the general Belisarius, whom Emperor Justinian made a chief military commander during the initial stages of his ambitious “Reconquista” – the reconquest of the Roman West.
Procopius accompanied Belisarius on his many campaigns, starting with the war against Persia on the Eastern front. The historian was also present during the Nika Riot, which almost cost Justinian the throne (and his life). Procopius accompanied Belisarius during the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and witnessed the recapture of Carthage. He also chronicled the Gothic War, which, after initial victories and the fall of Ravenna, turned into a bloody and protracted struggle that ruined Italy. In short, Procopius had VIP access to all the important personae and events of Justinian’s reign, being one of the most important members of the imperial establishment.
Through the Mirror Darkly – The Re-Discovery of “Secret History”
Constantinople and its sea walls, with the Hippodrome, Great Palace, and Hagia Sophia in the distance, ca. 10th century, by Antoine Helbert. Source: Antoine Helbert
While Procopius’ “Wars” and “Buildings” chronicle Justinian’s wars of conquest and praise the emperor’s architectural achievements (including the construction of Hagia Sophia), the “Secret History” reveals a starkly different perspective. The “Secret History”—also known as “Anecdota” or “Historia Arcana”—is a scathing critique of Emperor Justinian and his wife, Empress Theodora. Written around 550 CE (perhaps in 558), the “Secret History” was not published during Procopius’ life. Until its discovery, almost two centuries after the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the only evidence of its existence was a reference in the “Suda,” a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia. Finally, in 1623, the “Secret History” was published, continuing to attract scholars and history enthusiasts to the present day.
The “Secret History” covers roughly the same period as the first seven books of the “Wars,” but instead of praising Justinian’s military and political achievements, it paints a picture of tyranny, mismanagement, and the ruin of the Empire. It provides a rare but controversial glimpse into the darker, scandalous aspects of the court in Constantinople – a stark contrast from the glorified public image presented in Procopius’ other works. In each of the thirty short chapters, Procopius systematically dismantles the reputations of all the major players in Constantinople.
The Tales From Justinian’s Court – Eroticism, Intrigues and Demons
Empress Theodora, Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant, 1887. Source: Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Buenos Aires
The “Secret History” is probably most famous for its salacious stories, which sometimes border on occultism and fantasy. The most notorious tale is certainly that of Empress Theodora’s early years. According to Procopius, Theodora was a former actress and courtesan who used her seductive talents and beauty to manipulate men and climb the social ladder. However, the vivid anecdotes of the empress’ alleged promiscuity, her lewd performances, and immoral acts can also be seen as an attempt to denigrate a powerful woman who went against the social norms, breaking the rules, rising from the sands of the Hippodrome to the empress of the world’s most powerful empire.
Similarly, Procopius accused Emperor Justinian of being a cruel and incompetent ruler, a deceptive and treacherous leader whose policies brought widespread suffering and economic hardship across the Empire. In his attempt to discredit the emperor, Procopius goes so far as to portray Justinian as a nearly inhuman tyrant, a headless daemon roaming the palace at night. We should not forget, however, that Justinian, too, did not belong to the established aristocracy, and that many of his enemies considered him a political upstart who, like his uncle Justin, broke social norms to ascend the throne.
To Ruin an Empire – Procopius’ Attack on Justinian
A gold solidus of Justinian I, with victory depicted on the reverse, minted in Ravenna, ca. 530-539 CE. Source: British Museum, London
In his attempts to discredit Justinian, Theodora, and their associates, Procopius turns the “Secret History” into a rant. According to the author, whose resentment is palpable in every sentence, Emperor Justinian emptied the eastern border of soldiers, allowing the Persians to attack almost unopposed. He also blames the emperor for failings in trade and commerce and even goes so far as to accredit natural disasters—earthquakes, plagues, and floods—to “a demon in human form,” Justinian, who “depopulated the whole world.”
While these accusations are preposterous and hard to believe, Justinian’s Reconquista and the prolonged warfare in Italy did empty the imperial treasury, and the focus on the West diverted resources and manpower from the East. Justinian’s economic interventions, including price controls, disrupted the market, further weakening the imperial economy. Additionally, an expensive, empire-wide building program placed an extra burden on the state, prompting the tax rise. Yet, all those policies were not something Justinian did out of malice but responses to emerging crises. On the other hand, the calamities such as the Justinianic plague were beyond the emperor’s control.
The Great Disillusion or a Backup Plan?
The “Barberini Ivory” debate is ongoing as to whether it depicts Anastasius or Justinian I, 525-550 AD. Source: The Louvre, Paris
Procopius does not stop at the royal couple. He does the same for Justinian’s chief ministers and generals, blaming them for corruption and incompetence. Even Belisarius is not spared, becoming a weak man emasculated by his manipulative wife, Antonina, who happened to be Theodora’s close friend and former actress. Procopius is particularly hostile to the powerful women at court, who, like the empress, dared to rise beyond their limits. All those accounts, almost always exaggerated and distorted, serve to undermine the emperor’s legacy and provide a starkly different narrative than the one found in Procopius’ published works.
But why did Procopius change his narrative to such a degree? Why such hostility towards the imperial couple, their allies, and confidants? Modern historians offer several reasons. Procopius could, as a proponent of established order, consider Justinian and Theodora upstarts, unworthy of the crown. He could also blame the imperial couple and their associates for Belisarius’ misfortunes, which led to his patron losing the command after the mishap at Ravenna in 540 CE. Most probably, however, Procopius could have prepared the “Secret History” as a sort of protection in the case of a successful coup against Justinian’s regime. After all, Justinian almost lost his crown and life in the Nika Riots.
“Secret History” – Deconstructing Imperial Propaganda
The detail of the mosaic showing the emperor Justinian I and empress Theodora, 6th century CE. Source: Basilica di San Vitale, Ravenna
Despite its strong anti-imperial agenda, the “Secret History” remains an important source for Justinian’s reign and Roman/Byzantine history as a whole. While the work is undeniably sensationalist and filled with vitriolic attacks, it also provides valuable insight into the late Roman Empire at the crossroads. This was a period of victorious wars of reconquest but also of a bloody struggle. It was a period of imperial renewal but also of a deadly plague, which Procopius also chronicled in detail. It was a time of emperor’s glory, but also of internal strife.
Thus, by reading “Secret History” and comparing it to other Procopius’ writings, as well to the writings of other historians, one can construct a more balanced view of Justinian’s reign, recognizing both his achievements and his flaws. The “Secret History” provides a counter-narrative to the more official, propagandistic accounts of Justinian’s reign, highlighting the complex aspects of his rule that might otherwise be overlooked. The “Secret History” serves as a crucial reminder of the complexities and contradictions inherent in historical figures and events, leading to a more nuanced understanding of Roman and Byzantine history.
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