Beginning around 1070 BCE, ancient Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period is one of the civilization’s most mysterious and least understood. Ushered in by the collapse of the New Kingdom, it was characterized by political instability, foreign rule, and mass immigration. Although often viewed as a dark period of chaos and decline, it birthed a specific religious development that increased in prominence throughout the first millennium BCE: the worship of Isis and Horus as divine mother and child.   Osiris, Isis, and Horus: A Divine Family Divided Triad statuette of Osiris (center), Isis (left), and Horus (right), Ptolemaic Egypt, 664–30 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art: New York   The father Osiris, the mother Isis, and the son Horus were three of the most important and revered divinities in the ancient Egyptian pantheon. Their mythological story was closely connected to kingship. To the people, the country’s ruler (or pharaoh) represented a terrestrial version of the god Horus. Osiris was known as the king of the afterlife, with whom the pharaohs, and later others, became identified after death. Isis was cherished as a magical and compassionate protector goddess. Collectively, they formed a family unit known as the Osirian Triad.   During the Third Intermediate Period (1070-664 BCE), which comprised Dynasties 21-25, the worship of Isis and Horus became somewhat detached from the triad. In addition to still being venerated as individual entities and as members of their larger family unit, they were also often depicted as a mother-and-child pair, without Osiris.   Before the start of the 21st Dynasty, there was no large-scale focus on the worship of their mother-child relationship or related themes. They only received significant attention and exposure later, becoming more noticeable during the Libyan-ruled 22nd to 24th Dynasties. Was it just a coincidence that this followed the influx and rise to power of a group of nomadic peoples from beyond Egypt’s western border?   Who Were the Ancient Libyans? Wooden coffin of Pensenhor, a Libyan who settled in Egypt, Thebes, c. 8th century BCE. Source: British Museum: London   When used in reference to the ancient world, “Libyans” is an all-encompassing term that denotes the various nomadic subgroups and tribes that lived to Egypt’s west. Of the many foreigners to come into contact with Egypt throughout the civilization’s history, the Libyans were some of the most enigmatic. Their culture is poorly known, but Egyptian records of military campaigns indicate a long history of conflict with Egypt that spanned centuries. The New Kingdom brought increasingly frequent interaction between the Libyans and the Egyptians. It was during this time that the first permanent Libyan settlements likely arose within Egypt.   After gaining a stable foothold, descendants of some of these people would go on to attain positions of great power and influence in Egypt, culminating in the formation of several lines of pharaohs with Libyan origins. The kings of the first Libyan dynasty (Dynasty 22) traced their lineage back to the Meshwesh, a subgroup that had developed at least one settlement in a northern area of the country known as the Delta (Kitchen, 1990; Leahy, 1985). It is here that the Nile River branches out on its way to the Mediterranean Sea, resulting in a rich, fertile environment suitable for agriculture and fishing. It also may have provided the setting for a key mythological substory that reveals the main elements and themes of Isis and Horus’ relationship as mother and child (Gardiner, 1944).   Isis and Horus in Chemmis Reconstructed lotiform chalice, Thebes c. 1070–664 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In Osirian mythology, the god-king Osiris was murdered by his brother Seth, who went on to rule. After gathering the remains of her vanquished husband, Isis gave birth to Horus, the rightful heir, who would avenge the death of his father and restore order to Egypt. The overarching story has several episodes. One concerns the nurture and protection of young Horus in an area of delta-like marshland known as “Chemmis.” Horus would not be able to challenge Seth for the throne and re-establish the legitimacy of rule until he was older and strong enough. It was Isis’ job to ensure he reached maturity so he could do that.   Without her husband and aware that Seth would view Horus as a threat, Isis hid her vulnerable infant son amid the reeds and plants of Chemmis. There, she tried to keep him safe. This youthful version of Horus usually goes by the distinctive Greek name of Harpocrates, which means “Horus the child.”   Images of child-like god-kings became more common in artwork during the Third Intermediate Period in general. In the reconstructed chalice pictured above, a young god-king is shown seated, surrounded by marshland. Although this particular youth may not represent Horus specifically, the chalice is shaped like a blue lotus, a flower that grew in abundance in the Delta, where Isis sought refuge.   Isis and Horus in Art and Iconography Statuette of Isis nursing Horus dedicated by the divine adorer Chepenoupet II, c. 780-565 BCE. Louvre Museum   Several other kinds of artifacts that depict Horus the child and his mother became more prominent at the onset of the Third Intermediate Period. One of the most common are small statues made from stone, wood, or metal that show an infant Horus sitting on Isis’ lap (Fazzini, 1988). These statuettes were particularly prevalent in the Late Period (Dynasties 26-30) but also existed during the Libyan dynasties.   Although the material they were sculpted from varies, the scene they depict is the same. Isis (enthroned) is portrayed as a caring and devoted parent, suckling her divine child as she rears him to adulthood.   Glazed composition openwork spacer bead (back), c. 1000–800 BCE. Source: British Museum   Similar iconography appeared on spacer beads from the period. Openwork spacers are small, rectangular decorative items that were used as beads on bracelets. They emerged at the end of the New Kingdom and also show young gods in the protective confines of marshes. In the example above, we can see Isis and Horus (Tait, 1963) in a pose that matches that of the statuettes. They are surrounded by papyrus plants. The other side of the same spacer bead contains an image of the heir to the throne crouched on top of a lotus flower.   Glazed composition openwork spacer bead (front), c. 1000–800 BCE. Source: British Museum   Objects like these not only highlight the mythological importance of the marshes as a place of sanctuary for Isis and Horus the child. They also hint at the protective and regenerative properties with which the mother-and-son pair were identified. As their Chemmis substory and associated themes became more pervasive throughout the first millennium BCE, they functioned as key components of magical amulets and became part of medicinal practices.   Isis and Horus as Protectors and Healers Horus stele (Cippus), Egypt, c. 3rd century BCE. Source: Walters Art Museum   In ancient Egypt, many symbols and amulets were associated with the supernatural powers of Isis and adult Horus. However, the archaeological record reveals that from around the end of the New Kingdom, a special type of magical artifact that featured Harpocrates gained popularity. These amulets or stelae of Horus the child are called cippi, and their function and decoration are also connected to the Chemmis myth.   During his upbringing in the marshes, young Horus was stung by a scorpion and subsequently died. With the help of the god Thoth, Isis brought her son back to life, and because of this, he came to possess protective power over noxious and dangerous animals. Cippi were used as tools to ward off harmful creatures and to help heal people from snake bites and scorpion stings. They contained magical inscriptions over which water was poured (Seele, 1946). Attack victims probably drank or applied this sacred water in the hope it would aid their recovery.   The decoration on these artifacts correlates with their function. A naked Harpocrates holds on to hazardous wildlife as he tramples crocodiles beneath his feet. Some cippi also depict additional scenes that represent the protection Isis gave to Horus in the swamplands of Chemmis. Although most common from the 26th Dynasty, earlier examples indicate the growth of Isis and Horus the child’s mythological themes during the Third Intermediate Period.   What’s in a Name? Plaque inscribed with royal titles, Nile Delta, c. 8th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Harpocrates isn’t the only name that signifies the prominence of Isis and Horus’ mother-and-child themes during this era. In addition to their personal names (the names that historians use to refer to them), ancient Egyptian pharaohs also had a series of honorific titles and descriptive names called epithets. One scholar points out that the epithet “son of Isis” often appears in the royal titulary of the Third Intermediate Period (Muhs, 1998). Several kings of the Libyan 22nd and 23rd Dynasties employed it, demonstrating that they intentionally portrayed themselves as sons of the divine mother. This is supported by the fact that the personal name of one 22nd Dynasty ruler (Harsiese) means “Horus son of Isis.”   The name Isetemkheb, meaning “Isis is in Chemmis,” is another personal name that appears frequently in the first millennium BCE. It belonged to a number of royal women (Kitchen, 1973). One Egyptologist traced the name’s development and deduced that it did not appear as a personal name before the end of the New Kingdom (Seele, 1946). Names alluding to the mother-and-child themes of Isis and Horus are also apparent elsewhere.   Donation stela of Osorkon I, Memphis Region, c. 924–889 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Donation stelae, like the one pictured above, show the names of temples, gods, and goddesses that were presented with gifts. One expert who made a comprehensive study of these monumental records noted the names of the receiving deities (Meeks, 1979). His work reveals that several donations were made to Harpocrates and Isis of Chemmis. Although these stelae were rare before the 22nd Dynasty, they further highlight the pervasiveness of the mother-and-child thematic worship of Horus and Isis in the Libyan era.   The Libyan Link Head fragment from a statue of Osorkon II, Tanis, c. 874–835 BCE. Source: Penn Museum   Shrouded in darkness and mystery, the history of the nomadic Libyan migrants whose descendants went on to rule Egypt is still not fully understood. From the vulnerability of their initial New Kingdom settlements, they gradually gained strength and influence as they climbed the social strata of Egypt until they sat on the throne. That the increased popularity of the divine mother-and-child mythological themes of Isis and Horus parallels the Libyans’ rise to power suggests a close connection. But for what reason?   While there is no single widely accepted explanation for the phenomenon, there are some interesting possibilities. The scant evidence available hints that the ancient Libyans may have placed special emphasis on the concept of immediate family, the idea of succession, and the roles of women. If true, the mythology of Osiris, Isis, and the young Horus might have provided a relatable cultural anchor for them in their new home. As the setting of the Chemmis tale mirrored the physical environment of their own Delta settlements, it would have been particularly easy to identify with.   One scholar has suggested that the Libyans might have originally had the aim of setting up a “nomadic state” in Egypt (O’Connor, 1990). Another has pointed out that their use of existing iconography might have been beneficial to them by making it easier for Egyptians to accommodate the rule of foreigners (Leahy, 1985). Did they strategically link themselves to an element of established mythology to capitalize on the country’s instability?   A Lasting Legacy Greco-Roman Period statuette of Harpocrates, possible Alexandria, c. 50 BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   The reasons and motivations for Libyan settlement in Egypt are unclear. Some may have initially been prisoners of war, but their growth and ascension demonstrate similarities to young Horus’ evolution in Chemmis. With Isis’ protection, he survived in the Delta marshland until he became old and strong enough to stake his claim to rule the country. After taking root at the start of the Third Intermediate Period, the pair’s adoration as divine mother and child also developed and matured.   The veneration of the mother and child was prevalent through the Late Period and into Greco-Roman times. Their mythology continued to manifest in art and even became visible in architecture. Some people have hypothesized that later representations of Isis and her infant son may have influenced the traditional Christian imagery of Mary and baby Jesus. Whether true or not, such theories offer us a thought-provoking reminder of the interplay that occurs when different cultures converge.   Consideration of ancient historical developments like this one raises questions that are still relevant today. More people live abroad now than at any other time in human history. What beliefs do they carry with them when they emigrate? How do they adapt existing ideas and customs to forge new identities for themselves in a different land? How do they affect long-term change in the societies they live in?   Bibliography   Fazzini, R. A. (1988). Iconography of Religions XVI, Egypt Dynasty XXII-XXV. E. J Brill. Gardiner, A. H. (1944). Horus the Behdetite. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 30. Egypt Exploration Society, 23-61. Kitchen, K. A. (1990). The Arrival of the Libyans in Late New Kingdom Egypt. In Leahy, A. (ed.), Libya & Egypt c.1300–750 BCE. SOAS, CNMES & SLS, 15-27. Leahy, A. (1985). The Libyan Period in Egypt: An Essay in Interpretation. Libyan Studies 16, 51-65. Meeks, D. (1979). Les Donations aux Temples dans l’Égypte du Ier Millénaire avant J-C. In Lipinski, E. (ed.), State and Temple Economy in the Ancient Near East II. Orientaliste, 605-687. Muhs, B. (1998). Partisan Royal Epithets in the Late Third Intermediate Period and the Dynastic Affiliations of Pedubast I & Iuput II. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 84. Egypt Exploration Society, 220-223. O’Connor, D. (1990). The Nature of Tjemhu (Libyan) Society in the Later New Kingdom. In Leahy, A. (ed.), Libya & Egypt c.1300–750 BCE. SOAS, CNMES & SLS, 29-115. Seele, K. (1946). Oriental Institute Museum Notes. Horus on the Crocodiles. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 6. Cambridge University Press, 43-52. Tait, G. A. D. (1963). The Egyptian Relief Chalice. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 49. Egypt Exploration Society, 93-139.

The Ptolemaic temple in Sohag, Egypt. Source: Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities/University of Tübingen, Germany.   An Egyptian-German archaeological team recently excavated a well-preserved Ptolemaic temple pylon. The ancient entrance gate was discovered at the Athribis archaeological site just north of Cairo, Egypt.   Ptolemaic Temple Once Boasted 60-Foot Pylon Towers Source: Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities/University of Tübingen, Germany.   Archaeologists from Germany’s University of Tübingen collaborated with the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism to excavate the Ptolemaic temple pylon, which dates back over two millennia. The pylon consists of two towers that flank a central entrance gate, presumably to a temple complex. It is about 167 feet wide and originally stood up to 60 feet tall. Researchers say the newly-discovered Ptolemaic temple pylon is comparable to that of Luxor Temple, one of the most famous ancient Egyptian temple complexes. The most recent excavations at the Athribis site have focused on the Ptolemaic temple pylon’s northern tower. Archaeologists are now shifting their focus towards the area behind the pylon, where they hope to discover more temple remains.   Hieroglyphs Point to King Ptolemy VIII Source: Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities/University of Tübingen, Germany.   Hieroglyphic inscriptions at the Ptolemaic temple reveal that King Ptolemy VIII, who ruled during the 2nd century BCE, was responsible for the decoration of the pylon. He also likely ordered its construction. Ptolemy VIII was the younger son of King Ptolemy V and Queen Cleopatra I. He was known for his political prowess and the military conflict he had with his older siblings, Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II.   The Ptolemaic period lasted from 305 to 30 BCE. It began when Alexander the Great appointed one of his generals, Ptolemy I, to rule over ancient Egypt. Alexander, a ruler of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, had conquered Persian-controlled Egypt in 332 BCE. Afterward, Greek and Egyptian cultures became more integrated, which is reflected in the remains of ancient art and architecture. The Ptolemaic dynasty went on to become the longest—and the last—dynasty of ancient Egypt before its incorporation into the Roman Republic.   What Is the Athribis Archaeological Site? Room F6 of the Great Temple of Athribis in Sohag, Egypt. Source: Wikipedia Commons.   Athribis, an ancient city in Lower Egypt, was most powerful during the Ptolemaic era, but it remained occupied through the Roman and Byzantine periods. The city was once an important hub for the worship of the god Min-Re, his wife, the lion-headed goddess Repyt, and their son, the child god Kolanthes. The archaeological site of Athribis is located near modern-day Sohag, Egypt. It is about 25 miles north of Cairo on the eastern bank of the Damietta branch of the Nile River. The site spans over 74 acres and includes a main temple complex, various settlements, necropolises, and ancient quarries. Archaeologists have periodically worked on Athribis since the 19th century—and consistently since 2003—but it has yet to be fully excavated.

November 28, 2024

Folk and folk rock bands are responsible for some of the most progressive music ever made. Not only that, but they influenced the rock world as we know it

In a historic step toward the first-ever restoration of the tiger population to a nation where they were once extinct, two captive Siberian tigers have been translocated from Anna Paulowna Sanctuary, Netherlands, to the Ile-Balkhash Nature Reserve in Kazakhstan. This remarkable event is part of an ambitious program led by the Government of Kazakhstan with […] The post Ecologists Preparing to Return Tigers to Kazakhstan in World-First Tiger Reintroduction Effort appeared first on Good News Network.

Fans all over the world are waiting for sports stories, particularly great ones. In as much as sports exist, there will always be great sports stories, but what many of us do not expect is that sports stories sometimes mix with alcohol. Some of these stories also gained traction on the internet and became popular. […] The post 10 Memorable Intersections Between Alcohol and Sports appeared first on Listverse.

Courtrooms are arenas where facts meet interpretation, and justice hinges on the evidence presented. While most cases rely on standard proof like documents or DNA, some trials veer into the extraordinary. From animals seemingly speaking beyond the grave to digital footprints in unexpected places, these unusual pieces of evidence highlight the evolving nature of legal […] The post 10 Unbelievable Pieces of Evidence Used in Court Cases appeared first on Listverse.

Under President Joe Biden’s failed leadership, the United States has been in the throes of a four-year-long illegal immigrant crisis, during which an estimated more than 10 million people have entered the country. With immigration among the top issues in the 2024 campaign cycle, the American people are sending President-elect Donald Trump, who campaigned on a platform of mass deportations, back to Washington. The question now becomes how does the government actually go forward with deporting more than 10 million people, many of whom are deep in the interior of the country. I sat down with Lora Ries, director of the Border Security and Immigration Center at The Heritage Foundation, to discuss what a second Trump administration’s immigration agenda could look like on this week’s episode of “The Signal Sitdown.” Trump has the authority to secure the southern border on Day One through executive orders, Ries said. Under the Biden administration, border and immigration enforcement agents have been stuck behind their desks, unable to enforce the laws on the books. The results have been a disaster. “Right now we’re at 10.5 million inadmissible alien encounters by Customs and Border Protection, plus another more than 2 million known gotaways—and I say more than that, because that number is at least a year old.” “During the Biden Harris administration, over 525,000 unaccompanied children came to the U.S., in part because of a bad law that needs to be repealed and in part because [Homeland Security Secretary Alejandro] Mayorkas said multiple times publicly, ‘if you come as an unaccompanied child, we will not turn you back,’” Ries explained. “The statute in place regarding unaccompanied children offers immigration benefits to unaccompanied children. So, of course, what are we going to get? And what have we gotten? More unaccompanied children. And the numbers have been so vast that Health and Human Services, which is responsible to provide shelter and find a sponsor for these children, has not been able to keep up,” Ries added. “HHS has lost track of hundreds of thousands of these kids, and we need to find them,” she said.  That starts with Trump “declaring a national emergency to deal with the border crisis,” on Day One, Ries said. To deliver on his promises, Trump has tapped Tom Homan as his “border czar.” Ries, a former colleague of Homan, said, “He’s a great pick.” “He has worked his way up through the ranks,” Ries said of Homan. “There’s nothing that he asks agents and officers to do that he himself hasn’t done. He started in the Border Patrol at the then-[Immigration and Naturalization Service]. He was the head of enforcement and removal operations at [Immigration and Customs Enforcement] and worked his way up to be acting director of ICE.” “[Homan] knows how to prioritize the resources and to prioritize who needs to be identified, arrested first, in terms of national security threats,” Ries said. Ries believes there are five keys to closing the border and deporting more than 10 million people. “Illegal aliens want five things when they come here: They want to enter; they want to remain; they want to work here; they want to send money home; and they want to bring or have family here. And so if you prevent those five things, then they are either not going to come or go elsewhere,” she told me. “In terms of entry, we talked about ‘remain in Mexico,’ and the wall, and border agents, etc.,” Ries said.  “Stopping the ability to remain here,” she said, “includes immigration detention, but it also means not providing downstream benefits, whether that’s driver’s licenses or business licenses.”  As for preventing migrants from working, Ries said, policies such as E-Verify should be implemented. While preventing migrants from working will help prevent migrants from sending money home, “remittances has always been the tough nut to crack,” Ries said. She suggested taxing remittances could provide additional disincentives for migrants working in the United States. Finally, putting an end to chain migration, a focus in Trump’s first term, must be another priority. It’s a herculean task for the incoming Trump administration. It’s so, all because “Joe Biden sold out to the Left—the radical Left”—as has Mayorkas, Ries said, adding: “I don’t know how Secretary Mayorkas sleeps at night.” The radical Left’s vision that Biden, Mayorkas, and other Democrats have sold out to is a plan to turn the United States into a one-party state.  “It’s about power,” Ries said of the importation of millions across the open border. “More people in their districts, for example, means more congressional power based on the census and the head count and apportionment and redistricting. And then, in turn, presidential electoral votes.” Ries cited California as an example. “California has more representatives in the U. S. Congress than it should because they count everybody, and yet everybody isn’t supposed to vote in federal elections. Only U. S. citizens are supposed to vote in U.S. federal elections.” “So, why wouldn’t you just limit head count to U.S. citizens to determine congressional districts?” Ries asked rhetorically. “It’s a zero-sum game,” she added, meaning representation in government is “skewed to the left.” The abuses of our current immigration system have been so persistent, so extensive, that Ries suggests it might be better to start from scratch. “I think we need to throw out the whole immigration statute and just start over. It is too complicated, it’s too slow, it’s too expensive, and it just frustrates those who are trying to obey the law,” she told me. A well-functioning immigration system, she explained, should “be based in what benefits America in terms of sovereignty; in terms of a lawful, manageable system, communities, and populations we can assimilate into the American fabric; in terms of a common language and loyalty and a good understanding of civics and learning English.” “We’ve gotten away from that, and it shows,” Ries said. The post Here’s How to Deport More Than 10 Million People appeared first on The Daily Signal.

Residents in a string of coastal communities have been told it’s too late to leave their properties as an out-of-control bushfire cuts evacuation routes.An emergency warning is in place for parts of…

The Queensland premier has pledged to introduce the ‘adult crime, adult time’ bill.The new Liberal National Party (LNP) government has introduced its new “adult crime, adult time” bill into Parliament.The…