by Brian Shilhavy, Health Impact News: President elect Donald Trump is moving swiftly to appoint people to key leadership positions in his new administration, and it appears that he is giving preference to those who supported his Operation Warp Speed military campaign in 2020, and who reportedly received his COVID-19 shots, and encouraged others to get them […]

  On August 9, 48 BCE, two massive armies faced each other. On one side, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (also known as Pompey the Great) led an army numbering as many as 52,000 soldiers. They held the high ground and the numerical advantage over their rival. Facing them was the army of Gaius Julius Caesar outnumbered two to one.   What followed would be one of the bloodiest days in Roman history as national compatriots slew each other, and the two generals, once friends, would seek to strike a final nail in the other’s coffin. The result of the Battle of Pharsalus, on the southern edge of the Thessalian Plain in Greece, would determine the future of Rome.   Background to the Battle of Pharsalus The Battle of Pharsalus by an unknown artist, 1651. Source: Rijksmuseum   During the time of the Roman Republic, Rome was traditionally ruled by two consuls, with considerable power also lying in the hands of the senate. In 60 BCE, Rome was unofficially ruled by a triumvirate. Consulship lay in the hands of three extremely powerful men: Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Julius Caesar.   The alliance would not last long, however, as political ambition and the vagaries of fortune changed the dynamic of the three consul’s relationships to each other. In 54 BCE, according to Roman historian Seneca, Caesar was in Britain when he heard the news that his daughter Julia, the wife of Pompey, had died in childbirth.   Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, and his familial ties to Pompey had helped keep the two men from plotting against each other, but with the end of the Gallic campaign and the death of Julia there was little in the way to inhibit disagreements from turning into life or death struggles between the two consuls.   A year later, Crassus was removed from the coming power struggle as he was killed at the Battle of Carrhae on the eastern edges of the Roman Republic.   With a powerful force of many legions under his command, Caesar was well positioned to use force to take control in Rome, and as his campaign came to an end the senate wrestled with how to reintegrate him into the political scene of Rome, especially since his victory had brought him incredible popularity among the populace.   From 55 BCE to 52 BCE, a breakdown in order fueled by political tension caused anarchy to reign in certain portions of the city of Rome. Pompey invested much time and effort into meeting these challenges. The casus belli for Julius Caesar, however, came when the senate elected Pompey as the sole consul, and made plans to strip Caesar of his legions.   This move was too much for Caesar, and at this point on, war was inevitable. Neither Pompey nor Caesar wanted to go to war with the other, but personal pride and the political climate propelled them toward an inescapable vortex of conflict.   The War Bust of Pompey the Great in Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Source: Ole Haupt / Store Norske Leksikon   In January of 49 BCE, Julius Caesar and his legions invaded Italy which was poorly prepared for such an undertaking. Caesar met with easy triumph, and spoke with Pompey over what course to take next. Agreements between the two fell through and the war continued. As Caesar’s legions saw victory in the Italian Peninsula, Pompey was forced to withdraw and seek victory elsewhere.   Caesar then set out to Spain to take control of the province which had been under the consulship of Pompey. He scored several victories against the Pompeian forces there and took control of the province before returning to Rome whereupon he was named dictator, giving him significantly more power than the title of consul.   With Spain subdued, Caesar sought to put an end to Pompey by pursuing him across the Adriatic, and thus beginning the Macedonian campaign against forces controlled directly by Pompey.   The Roman Republic at the time of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Source: Wikipedia   Crossing the Adriatic was a risky maneuver, and a fleet under the control of Pompey’s ally Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus managed to capture many of Caesar’s transports returning to Brundisium on the eastern coast of Italy.   Caesar, as a result, was stranded on the western coast of the Adriatic with just seven legions and limited supplies. If he could not defeat Pompey there, the entire war would be lost. He was, however, later reinforced by another legion, although he was still vastly outnumbered by Pompey’s forces.   The campaign did not get off to a good start for Caesar, and he failed to secure the vital supply town of Dyrrachium from Pompey’s forces. Caesar was forced to withdraw from Thessaly, and his situation became critical.   Pompey decided to finish the war and use his superior position and advantage in numbers to deal a final crushing defeat of Caesar. He met up with reinforcements from Syria and pressed Caesar into battle.   Pharsalus The location of the Battle of Pharsalus. Image created by author using Google Earth and MSPaint.   On August 9, the two armies met on the southern edge of the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly. According to Caesar’s own account, he had a total of 22,000 men which included roughly 1,000 cavalry. Facing him, the estimates of Pompey’s forces vary through historical records, which give estimates of between 36,000 to 45,000 infantrymen, bolstered by around 7,000 cavalry, easily giving Pompey a two-to-one advantage.   Initial dispositions of the two armies at Pharsalus. Source: cc / Wikipedia   The two leaders deployed their army with a river protecting their flank. For Caesar, the Enipeus River protected his left flank, while for Pompey, it protected his right. Both generals set up their cavalry facing each other on the other flank.   Pompey’s cavalry, vastly superior in number, was strengthened by virtually the entire army’s contingent of archers and slingers. This gave Pompey a massive advantage on his left flank from which he intended to weaken and roll up Caesar’s right flank. This is also where Pompey positioned himself to make sure this vital part of his strategy would go according to plan. From Caesar’s left flank to his right, his generals Mark Antony, Domitius and Faustus Cornelius Sulla (the son of Lucius Cornelius Sulla) took up their positions. Caesar took up position with Sulla on the right.   Antique print of the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey’s army is on the left, and Caesar’s on the right. Source: maps-prints.com   Caesar’s legions, severely outnumbered, were arranged in just three lines (sections), six men deep. When Caesar saw the size of Pompey’s army, especially the cavalry, he ordered his lines to be thinned to create a fourth line to support his cavalry which would have no chance of being outnumbered seven to one by the enemy.   Caesar was far from confident, but his troops were battle-hardened and would not break easily.   The two armies stood motionless and waited for the other to make the first move. Pompey controlled the initiative and Caesar was forced to order his army to advance first. His left flank under Mark Antony and the center under Domitius advanced in good order and engaged Pompey’s right and center.   Opposite Caesar’s right flank, Pompey’s cavalry advanced and began the attack. Caesar’s right flank began to fall back and Pompey’s mounted troops peeled off in sections and prepared to outflank Caesar’s right flank.   Their success was short-lived, as Caesar’s forth line received the order to attack Pompey’s cavalry. Their assault was furious beyond expectation, and the Pompeian cavalry, in shock from the attack, began to withdraw under pressure. The fourth line pressed their advantage and the Pompeian archers and slingers, without support from their fleeing cavalry, were cut to pieces.   Sextus Pompeius Consults Erictho About the Battle of Pharsalus, Robert John Dunkarton, after John Hamilton Mortimer, 1778. Source: Rijksmuseum   After the success of the fourth line was secured, Caesar ordered the third line under the command of Sulla to advance, providing vital support to the beleaguered first and second lines who were by now tiring.   The collapse of Pompey’s left flank, however, filled his forces with despair, and the battle did not last much longer, as they began to quit the field rather than be subjected to the roll-up of their left flank under the efficient advance of Caesar’s fourth line.   Pompey quit the field and his forces fled to the security of their camp. Caesar’s legions followed and attacked the camp, forcing Pompey’s troops higher up into the mountain. Without the expectation of respite or water, they threw down their arms and surrendered.   According to Caesar’s own account, he showed mercy to these tired soldiers and pardoned them all.   After the Battle The Battle of Pharsalus and the Death of Pompey by the Workshop of Apollonio di Giovanni and Marco del Buono Giamberti. 15th century. Source: Art Institute of Chicago   Pompey fled to the port of Larisa with a small number of men and boarded a transport. He expected to rally support on the other side of the Mediterranean, and although the war lasted for another three years, Pompey did not live to see it. He made for Pelusium on the coast of Egypt, hoping to win support from his former client, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, the king of Egypt. His expectation was, however, rewarded with treachery, and he was struck down when he set foot ashore.   The Murder of Pompey by Bartolomeo Pinelli, 1818. Source: Rijksmuseum   Although the Battle of Pharsalus did not end the war, it was a decisive victory and legitimized Caesar’s power. Until the battle, most of the Roman world had supported Pompey, but after Caesar’s victory and the assassination of Pompey, it was only a matter of time before support for the Pompeians would completely crumble.   The casualty count was completely lopsided. According to Caesar, he lost only 200 soldiers, but this number is probably closer to a thousand. Those who fought alongside Pompey, however, sustained an estimate of 6,000 to 15,000 killed, and around 24,000 captured.   Conclusion Ciarán Hinds as Julius Caesar is Season 1, Episode 7, “Pharsalus,” of HBO’s Rome (2005). Source: HBO   Pharsalus was a great victory for Caesar and it served as the military foundation from which he could assert his power over the Republic. Despite this, however, August 9, 48 BCE was a sad day for Rome, as legions were set upon legions in an episode of fraternal slaughter.

    Florida is the third most-visited state in the US, and it’s not hard to see why. The Sunshine State is packed with sun-soaked beaches, vibrant nightlife, and family-friendly theme parks. It’s where cities like Miami, Orlando, and Tampa bring endless excitement, and it’s also home to lush landscapes and the stunning Everglades. Don’t forget, this is also the state where the Kennedy Space Center launched America into space.   However, many tend to overlook the rich history that lies beneath Florida’s tropical surface. In fact, this iconic state was the site of some of the earliest European settlements in America and was a cultural crossroads long before becoming a vacation hotspot. Florida is also home to charming historic towns. So, if you want to see ancient Native American settlements, Spanish colonial forts, and other impressive historic sites, then the Alligator State is the next place to be. Here are ten must-see historic landmarks in Florida that should definitely be on your bucket list.   1. Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas National Park Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located within Dry Tortugas National Park, approximately 70 miles west of Key West, Florida, Fort Jefferson is a monumental 19th-century coastal fortress. The monument was constructed between 1846 and 1875. Today, it stands as the largest brick masonry structure in the Americas, comprising over 16 million bricks.   The fort was strategically built to protect one of the most significant deepwater anchorages in North America and served as a vital outpost for ships patrolling the Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida.   During the Civil War, Fort Jefferson remained under Union control and was utilized as a prison for deserters and other criminals; its most notable inmate was Dr. Samuel Mudd, convicted for his involvement in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln.   When visiting this historic landmark in Florida, remember to explore the fort’s extensive grounds, including its massive walls, historic cannons, and scenic vistas of the surrounding turquoise waters. Accessible only by boat or seaplane, the journey to Fort Jefferson offers a unique opportunity to delve into a remote and historically rich site, where you can also enjoy snorkeling among vibrant coral reefs and diverse marine life.   2. The Ernest Hemingway Home and Museum, Key West Ernest Hemingway Home & Museum in Key West, FL. Source: Flickr   You can find the Ernest Hemingway Home and Museum at 907 Whitehead Street in Key West. This is a significant literary landmark that offers insight into the life of the renowned American author. The landmark was built in 1851 in a Spanish colonial style by marine architect Asa Tift. The two-story residence is built from native limestone, so it provides a cool haven in the tropical climate.   In 1931, Hemingway and his second wife, Pauline Pfeiffer, acquired the then-derelict property, restoring it to its former grandeur. During his decade-long residence, Hemingway penned some of his most celebrated works, including “To Have and Have Not,” which is set in Key West.   Nowadays, the museum preserves the home’s original furnishings and personal artifacts. This will give you the chance to learn about Hemingway’s daily life. A notable feature is the population of approximately 40-50 polydactyl (six-toed) cats, many of which are descendants of Hemingway’s own pet, Snow White.   The lush gardens, Hemingway’s writing studio, and the iconic pool, famously the first in Key West, all add to the iconic experience.   3. Vizcaya Museum and Gardens, Miami Vizcaya Museum and Gardens, Miami, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic estate in Miami exemplifies early 20th-century opulence and architectural grandeur. Vizcaya Museum and Gardens served as the winter residence of industrialist James Deering, co-founder of International Harvester. Constructed between 1914 and 1922, the estate’s design reflects a harmonious blend of Italian Renaissance and Mediterranean Revival styles, featuring a main house with 34 rooms adorned with European antiques and decorative arts spanning the 15th to 19th centuries.   The surrounding ten acres of meticulously landscaped gardens draw inspiration from French and Italian traditions, incorporating native subtropical flora to create a unique aesthetic.   When at Vizcaya Museum and Gardens, remember to check out the various themed areas, including the Secret Garden, the Theater Garden, and the Maze Garden. Each of these will offer you a distinct experience.   Today, Vizcaya operates as a museum and cultural hub. It hosts educational programs, art exhibitions, and community events. The iconic landmark is also committed to preservation and public engagement. So, if you’re interested in history, art, and landscape architecture, Vizcaya is the right place for you.   4. The Ringling Museum of Art and Ca’ d’Zan, Sarasota Cà d’Zan, John’s mansion at The Ringling, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Both of these historic Florida landmarks are integral components of The Ringling estate. They are a reflection of the cultural and artistic vision of John and Mable Ringling.   The Ringling Museum of Art was established in 1927 and serves as Florida’s official state art museum. It houses an extensive collection of over 10,000 artworks, including European paintings, sculptures, and decorative arts spanning from antiquity to contemporary periods. Notably, the museum features a renowned collection of Baroque art, with significant works by Peter Paul Rubens. Also, the museum’s 21 galleries are set amidst serene gardens. So they provide you with a comprehensive cultural experience when you’re visiting.   Ca’ d’Zan, translating to “House of John” in Venetian dialect, was the Ringlings’ opulent winter residence, completed in 1926. Designed by architect Dwight James Baum, the mansion exemplifies Mediterranean Revival architecture with Venetian Gothic influences inspired by the Ringlings’ travels to Venice.   The 36,000-square-foot mansion boasts 56 rooms. It features intricate architectural details and luxurious furnishings that reflect the grandeur of the Roaring Twenties.   When you visit the Ringling Estate, you’ll be able to explore both the art museum and Ca’ d’Zan, which offers you a rich historic experience where you’ll learn about the cultural heritage and artistic legacy that the Ringlings envisioned for Sarasota.   5. Castillo de San Marcos, St. Augustine Aerial view over the Matanzas Bay of Castillo de San Marcos St. Augustine, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic Florida landmark is famous for being America’s oldest masonry fort. Constructed by the Spanish between 1672 and 1695, it was built to defend Florida and the Atlantic trade route. The fort’s coquina stone walls have withstood numerous sieges, including attacks by English forces in 1702 and 1740.   Over the centuries, it has flown the flags of Spain, Britain, and the United States, a reflection of the complex colonial history of the region. Today, you can explore Castillo de San Marcos’ well-preserved bastions, casemates, and gun deck. This will give you insight into 17th-century military engineering. The Castillo offers daily ranger talks, historical weapons demonstrations, and exhibits detailing its storied past.   6. The Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse, St. Augustine Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse, St. Augustine, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This significant historical landmark is located at 14 St. George Street in St. Augustine. The Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse is believed to be the oldest wooden school building in the United States. Constructed in the early 18th century, it first appeared on tax records in 1716. The building is made of bald cypress and red cedar, materials chosen for their durability, and is held together by wooden pegs and iron spikes.   Originally a homestead for the Genoply family, the structure was transformed into a coeducational school in 1788 by Juan Genoply, who became the first schoolteacher. The school provided education in reading, writing, and arithmetic to the children of St. Augustine’s Minorcan community.   You can tour the preserved schoolhouse, which includes the original classroom, a detached kitchen, and a garden featuring a 250-year-old pecan tree. The interior showcases period-appropriate furnishings, textbooks, and school supplies. All of these provide you with a glimpse into 18th-century colonial education. An animatronic teacher and students provide historical context, which enhances the educational experience.   7. De Soto National Memorial, Bradenton De Soto National Memorial, Bradenton, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This Florida landmark commemorates the 1539 landing of Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto and his extensive exploration of the southeastern United States. The memorial encompasses approximately 26.84 acres at the mouth of the Manatee River and features 3,000 feet of coastline and a significant mangrove swamp ecosystem.   When visiting the De Soto National Memorial, you’ll be able to explore the park’s nature trails, which wind through coastal landscapes similar to those encountered by De Soto’s expedition. As for the visitor center, it provides you with exhibits showcasing historic armor, 16th-century weapons, and period artifacts, along with a theater presenting the film “Hernando de Soto in America.”   From December through April, the park hosts “Camp Uzita,” a living history camp where reenactors demonstrate the daily life of 16th-century Spanish soldiers and Native Americans.   8. The Edison and Ford Winter Estates, Fort Myers Henry Ford Estate and Thomas Edison Estate, Fort Myers, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This is where you’ll learn about the lives of two of America’s most influential innovators, Thomas Edison and Henry Ford. In 1885, Edison purchased 13 acres along the Caloosahatchee River, where he built his winter retreat, “Seminole Lodge,” completed in 1886. This estate served as a sanctuary for Edison and his family. It provided a warm escape from northern winters and a place for relaxation and inspiration.   In 1916, Henry Ford, a close friend and business associate of Edison, acquired the adjacent property, naming it “The Mangoes.” Ford’s Craftsman-style bungalow became a winter haven for his family. It fostered a deepening friendship between the two families.   When you visit these iconic estates in Fort Myers, you’ll have the chance to explore more than 20 acres of historical buildings and gardens, including Edison’s main house, guest house, and Ford’s residence. The site also features Edison’s 1928 Botanical Research Laboratory, where he conducted experiments to find a domestic source of rubber.   The museum houses an extensive collection of artifacts, including Edison’s phonographs, light bulbs, and Ford’s automobiles. This will allow you to learn about their groundbreaking contributions to technology and industry.   The lush gardens showcase a diverse array of plants from around the world. They reflect Edison’s interest in botany. Notably, the estates are home to one of the largest banyan trees in the continental United States, planted by Edison himself.   9. Kingsley Plantation, Jacksonville Kingsley Plantation, Jacksonville, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Found on Fort George Island near Jacksonville, Kingsley Plantation is the oldest surviving plantation house in Florida. Established in 1814 by Zephaniah Kingsley, a prominent slave trader and planter, the estate offers a profound insight into the complexities of early 19th-century plantation life. The plantation’s main house, constructed between 1797 and 1798, is a testament to the architectural styles of the period.   Surrounding the house are 25 well-preserved slave cabins arranged in a unique semicircular pattern, built from tabby, a durable mixture of lime, shells, and sand. These structures provide a tangible connection to the lives of the enslaved individuals who labored there.   Consider checking out the plantation grounds, including the barn, kitchen house, and interpretive garden. This will give you a comprehensive understanding of the plantation’s operations and the diverse experiences of its inhabitants.   As part of the Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, Kingsley Plantation preserves significant historical narratives, and it also showcases the natural beauty of Florida’s coastal environment.   10. Florida Caverns State Park, Marianna Inside the caverns at Florida Caverns State Park in Marianna, Florida. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Known for its unique air-filled limestone caves, the only such formations accessible to the public within Florida’s park system, Florida Caverns State Park’s geological history dates back approximately 38 million years, when the area was submerged under a shallow sea. Over time, the accumulation of shells, coral, and sediments formed limestone bedrock. Subsequent fluctuations in sea levels and the action of acidic groundwater dissolved portions of this bedrock. This led to the creation of the intricate cave systems adorned with stalactites, stalagmites, and flowstones.   In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) developed the park as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. Their efforts included excavating the caves to make them accessible for tours and constructing various park facilities. The park officially opened to the public in 1942. It is located near Marianna in the Florida Panhandle.   Make sure to participate in guided tours that navigate through a series of illuminated rooms within the caves when you visit Florida Caverns State Park. This will allow you to witness impressive geological formations.   Apart from the caves, the park offers a range of outdoor activities, including hiking, camping, boating, and fishing. The diverse natural habitats within the park support a variety of wildlife, such as blind cave crayfish, cave salamanders, and several bat species.

  Fascism in Britain has always been met with anti-fascism, and the rise in fascist activity following the Second World War did not go unchecked. Created due to the growing frustrations from Jewish ex-service men who did not think enough was being done to stop fascism, the 43 Group became an active force against fascism between 1946 and 1950. The Group repeatedly thwarted attempts by fascists and fascist groups to gain a foothold, and, consequently, was instrumental in the decline of fascism following the War.    What Were the 43 Group’s Origins and Purpose? Oswald Mosley and the British Union of Fascists, who were disbanded by the British Government during World War Two. Source: PBS (Season 1, World on Fire | Episode 1 History & Images | Masterpiece | Official Site | PBS)   Defense Regulation 18B allowed any persons believed to be a threat to the country to be interned during the Second World War, including fascists, but the regulation was lifted on Victory Day by Prime Minister, Winston Churchill and detainees were released. [1] Several fascist parties emerged after this, most prominently the British League of Ex-Servicemen and Women (BLESMAW) who were anti-Semitic and anti-communist in nature.    The Association of Jewish Ex- Servicemen did oppose fascist activity, often setting up pitches at popular spots for fascist activity, but the lack of physical action from the association led to frustration from Jewish ex-servicemen who felt there needed to be more physical confrontation. In February 1946, four men decided to take matters into their own hands. Morris Beckman, Gerry Flamberg, Alec Carson and Len Sherman came across a BLESMAW meeting, decided to approach, and fighting soon broke out. This was the first meeting to be closed down physically. [2]    What Happened During the Group’s Early Days? Gerry Flamberg, founder of the 43 Group, speaking about the recurrence of fascism, c. 1946-1950. Source: The Jewish Museum London Online Archive (JML).   Following this first physical shut down, a meeting was held to discuss what could be done to further combat anti-fascist activity. Altogether, 38 ex-servicemen and 5 women turned up, inspiring the name for the Group. It was decided that a radical anti-fascist organization would be set up, ready to meet the fascist threat head on.     The Group increased in number and by the end of April 1946, around 300 men and women had joined, and the Group were attacking between six and ten fascist meetings a week with the aim to have the meeting closed down. Fighting occurred predominantly at these street meetings, which usually featured pitches and were used to spread the messages of fascist groups. Meetings grew steadily from one per week to three or four a day, several days a week and many had an emphasis on antisemitism. [3]    Further to this activity, some members also focused on tackling street vendors who spread fascist literature. For those who could not partake in the physical side of anti-fascism, they were used as spies to infiltrate fascist groups and gather information. One member even successfully infiltrated BLESMAW. [4]    How Did Escalating Tensions Arise? A crowd gathered to hear a member of the 43 Group in March 1947. Source: The Jewish Museum London Online Archive (JML)   The upsurge in fascist activity in 1947 was matched by an increase in anti-fascist activity and by mid-1947, attendance at street meetings had increased with an average of 2000 attendees at meetings held by BLESMAW between April and October 1947. The street meetings gradually became more violent, and Ridley Road became notorious for its weekly clashes between fascists and anti-fascists, often referred to as the ‘Battle for Ridley Road’. [5]     As the months passed, the meetings became more pro-Mosley and more anti-Semitic and there was a marked increase in the use of weaponry, including knuckledusters, coshes and knives. In response, the 43 Group was shutting down an average of fifteen outdoor meetings every week by October 1947, including those held by BLESMAW at the hot spot, Ridley Road.    What Led to the Beginning of the End? Oswald Mosley, founder of the Union Movement. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Other fascist groups had set the stage for Oswald Mosley’s return, who had been working behind the scenes since the end of the war, carefully avoiding any associations with Nazism. The creation of the Union Movement (UM) was officially announced in November 1947, uniting 51 fascist groups, organizations and clubs.    The UM faced opposition like the parties that preceded it. A meeting held by the UM at Kensington Hall in February 1949 was attacked with tear gas by the 43 Group and an effigy of Mosley was burned nearby. A month later, a branch of the UM undertook a march from Ridley Road but were met by a crowd of 2000 and violence broke out with weapons such as lumps of concrete hurled by the crowds. Following the increase in violence from both fascists and anti-fascists, Home Secretary James Ede, operating under Prime Minister Clement Attlee placed a blanket ban on all marches.    The 43 Group takes over a fascist meeting point in Bethnal Green, c.1947. Source: The Jewish Museum London Online Archive (JML).   Despite attempts at establishing a movement, interest was dying away, there was no longer large-scale fighting at meetings and the UM failed to gain a foothold. Fascist activity began to decrease and with this came the decline of the 43 Group; fascism was the reason for its existence and as it declined so did the Group’s purpose. By January 1949 the Group had less than one-third of its earliest 300 members left and by April 1950 the 43 Group had disbanded completely. [6]    Sources:    [1] David Stephen Lewis, Illusions of Grandeur: Mosley, Fascism and the British Ideology 1931-1981 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987, p.231.  [2] Dave Renton, Fascism, Anti-fascism and Britain in the 1940s (London: MacMillan, 2000) p. 23/24.  [3] Lionel Rose:’ Fascism in Britain, Factual Survey, No.1′, February 1948, in Union of Communication Workers. Located in the Modern Records Office, Warwick University, UK  [4] Morris Beckman, the 43 Group: Battling with Mosley’s Blackshirts (Gloucestershire: The History Press, 2013), p.85.

  Maloca is the name given to the houses where indigenous communities of the Amazon rainforest live, settled in regions of the forest in Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Malocas are architectural structures in which multiple families share daily activities and ritual practices. For the communities living in the Amazon rainforest, the maloca represents a physical manifestation of the cosmos, their ancestral knowledge, and a spatial strategy for living in harmony with nature.   The Architecture of the Maloca Photo of a maloca in the middle of the jungle by Diego Samper, 2021. Source: Banco de la República, Colombia   The architecture of the maloca is deeply symbolic, reflecting the structure of the world and the cosmos as seen through the eyes of the indigenous groups who construct them. Through their architectural design, malocas depict these societies’ myths of origin and cosmological and sociological structures. The houses act as a symbolic representation of the human body, Mother Earth’s uterus, or the sun’s or moon’s house.   The maloca’s role as a home for nuclear and extended families reflects the conception of the house as a central spatial unit for the construction of society and the reproduction of life. Malocas are spaces where knowledge is transmitted to new generations through oral history and material culture, such as tools and ritual objects. It is also a place where collective decisions are made and the politics of the communities are put into play.   Malocas are constructed in community gatherings called mingas, which occur when several families unite to further collective goals, including exchanging goods or celebrating ritual events. The structural design of the maloca can vary depending on the community. However, in general terms, the base floor is a square or circle from which walls rise to support a conical or triangular roof. The techniques used to build and design a maloca are passed from generation to generation to preserve the community’s traditional knowledge.   The materials used for their construction come from natural resources in the surrounding environment. They include specific types of wood and plant leaves, mainly related to sacred elements depicted in different myths. These are gathered through sustainable strategies that protect environmental balance while granting the community protection from rain, heat, and humidity.   Photo of the openings made in a maloca’s roof. Source: Gaia Amazonas.   Some malocas are also constructed to track time and the year’s seasons. Their roofs have two openings, one pointing to the east and the other to the west. This allows the maloca to serve the community as a solar clock. As the sun moves throughout the day, the rays illuminate specific parts of the maloca’s roof, penetrating the interior space and shedding light over specific parts of the floor. At midday, the light is blocked, and the inside becomes completely dark.   The path of the sun’s light signals the time when different daily activities should be undertaken. Moreover, due to changes in the tilt of the sun throughout the year, the angle of the sunlight entering the maloca also changes, helping the community to determine seasonal periods for sowing, fishing, hunting or harvesting. The openings also serve a physical purpose, allowing air circulation and the escape of cooking smoke.   The central space of the maloca represents the center of knowledge, which is governed by men. This space is also dedicated to ritual dances and ceremonies, which may also exclude women. This inner area is designated by four pillars surrounded by an octagonal floor, which creates nine outer subspaces assigned to specific daily and ritual activities. The founder of Gaia Amazonas, Martin von Hildebrand, wrote about the symbolic-spatial distribution of the maloca, explaining how these four central pillars indicate the space reserved for the world of knowledge, with its surrounding areas, where women dominate, available for everyday activities such as cooking, eating, and sleeping. The symbolism of these four pillars can vary. Among the Makuna people, for instance, four central pillars represent four mountains that serve as the base for the sky of the world.   The Spatial Symbolism of the Maloca Symbolic structure of a Makuna’s maloca by Luis Cayón, “Pienso, luego creo: la teoría Makuna del mundo,” 2013. Source: Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia.   Malocas are a tangible representation of how locals believe physical and social spaces function, defined and organized in accordance with their myths. For instance, in the Makuna community, the maloca is perceived as a replica of the universe on a smaller scale. The two opposing doors represent the masculine and the feminine, which are divided by an imaginary “River of Milk.” This is the river through which an ancestral anaconda traveled to give birth to different indigenous communities and to create the world and the universe.   Malocas also act as a map of where different indigenous communities are located. In the horizontal plane, the central part of the house represents the community’s location in the broader territory; the outer areas surrounding the center of the maloca represent the locations where the neighboring and related communities live.   Illustration of a Kuebi maloca by Juan Pablo Duque Cañas, 2019. Source: Revista Credencial.   In the vertical plane, the maloca is situated in the terrestrial plane, between spiritual worlds located above and below the ground. These mythical—but not imaginary—territories are inhabited by spiritual beings that the community’s shamans contact through visions induced by consuming yajé, a sacred preparation made from the ayahuasca plant.   In Makuna mythology, malocas are located in one of the planes that comprise a multilayered cosmological structure. These different layers mirror the “real” world and include, in the upper levels, the Maloca de la Dulzura (Maloca of Sweetness), Maloca de la Gente Estrella (Maloca of the Star People) and the Maloca of the Day. The lower levels consist of the Maloca de la Tristeza (Maloca of Sadness), where the dead live, and the Umarí River, the path below the earth that the sun follows overnight.   The Cultural Role of the Maloca Undated photo of an indigenous community dancing inside a maloca. Source: The British Museum.   Malocas are the heart of cultural life in the Amazon rainforest. They spatially reflect the cosmology and mythical stories that serve as the foundation of cultural life amongst local communities. Many families can live together in a single maloca, which may include 50 to 80 people. In some communities, members of the families are even buried under the space where their hammocks used to hang. Although communal life rules inside the malocas due to the necessary cohabitation of different families, malocas are also spaces for social disputes and interpersonal conflict resolution.   In the maloca, ancestral histories and beliefs are exchanged; it’s a space not only for everyday activities but one that transcends its practical purpose, serving as an architectural embodiment of their cosmogony. This happens through the everyday sharing of stories or rituals, including the Yuruparí, the most significant ethnological event to take place in the Amazon rainforest, the rite of passage marking men’s transition from childhood to adulthood.   The Architectural and Cultural Legacy of Amazonic Malocas Photo of a maloca. Credencial Historia. Source: Revista Credencial.   Today, malocas are an excellent example for understanding how indigenous communities maintain a concrete bond with their past, present and future in an ecological and architectural manner. Malocas are structures that weave together the community’s ancestral history, myths and daily activities. They create a space that embodies the sustainability of the relationship between humans, non-humans and the environment. This creates collective well-being and preserves social life in harmony with the rainforest.   Historically, malocas have been targeted and destroyed over the years. Many were destroyed by Catholic colonial missionaries in the 16th century, who considered them to be pagan and demonic spaces that had to be erased in order to facilitate the evangelization and indoctrination of local communities into the Catholic faith. Despite this, malocas remained.   From the end of the 19th century until the mid-20th century, the Amazon rainforest faced intensive destruction due to rubber exploitation. Indigenous peoples were enslaved, and many malocas were burnt. Deforestation and illegal mining also threaten these communities and their homes. Today, malocas are at risk of disappearing due to a number of threats harming the Amazon rainforest, including climate change, intensive animal breeding and deforestation.   Photo of a maloca by Juan Gabriel Soler. Source: Gaia Amazonas   These threats are the result of capitalist intervention in the territory, damaging the natural and social balance of the Amazon rainforest that these communities have worked to preserve. The social and geographical isolation that have characterized the Amazon rainforest throughout the years, as well as the lack of state presence, have caused the Amazon rainforest to historically be subject to many destructive influences, first from foreign settlers and, today, from multinational companies seeking to exploit natural resources.   Despite this, many local indigenous communities have organized themselves into political action groups to fight for their land rights. These efforts include gatherings and conversations that take place inside the malocas themselves. These houses are becoming increasingly vital places for safeguarding the natural and cultural heritage of the Amazon rainforest in the face of negligent national governments that favor economic growth over the preservation of the rainforest as a resource for developing strategies to address the contemporary challenges of climate change and the destruction of natural environments.

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