by Mark Finchem, Your News: By Hon. Mark Finchem, Executive Director of the Election Fairness Institute, Inc., a contributor-funded, IRS-approved 501(c)(3) dedicated to researching unfair practices in elections, separating signal from noise, to ensure that the real voice of the people is heard. To support their work, visit https://GoEFI.org. ActBlue Real Property Money Laundering Research Brief […]

  As the first decade of the new millennium neared its end, the 2008 election brought with it the prospect of moving away from the unpopular policies of the George W. Bush administration and selecting a new leader to battle the deepening Great Recession. After Barack Obama secured the Democratic Party’s nomination, it also offered the very real possibility of electing the nation’s first Black president.   Civil Rights and Black Representation Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm speaking at the July 1972 Democratic National Convention. Source: Library of Congress, Washington DC   Though Black men were formally granted the right to vote in 1870, decades of voter repression and intimidation resulted in minimal Black representation in government and low rates of voter registration and turnout, particularly in the South. Following the passage of the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965), the representation of Black Americans in government began to increase, though more slowly at the national level than in state and local positions.   The first Black candidate to formally run in the presidential primaries was Shirley Chisholm, who campaigned in 12 states in 1972, ending her run with 152 pledged delegates. By 2008, only two Black candidates had run nationwide campaigns in the Presidential primaries, Jesse Jackson and Alan Keyes, and neither had secured their party’s nomination.   The Political Landscape of the Aughts President George W. Bush (center) meets with his National Security Council, September 12, 2001. Source: Flickr/The National Archives   The first presidential election of the new millennia was marked by controversy, setting the stage for a tumultuous decade. After losing the popular vote to Al Gore, George W. Bush was inaugurated as the 43rd president in January 2001. Just nine months into his tenure, Al Qaeda staged the largest terrorist attack on American soil in history. The national unity that followed was short-lived.   Though Americans largely supported the invasion of Afghanistan, the subsequent invasion of Iraq was less popular, particularly when the administration’s lies about the nation possessing weapons of mass destruction became apparent. The administration’s mishandling of the Hurricane Katrina disaster, implementation of the controversial Patriot Act, prolonged entanglement in Afghanistan without capturing Osama bin Laden, and finally, the 2008 recession conspired to give Bush one of the lowest approval ratings of an outgoing president.   Whoever took the reins in 2008 would have their hands full.   Barack Obama: From Grassroots Organizer to Presidential Nominee A young Barack Obama with his mother in Hawaii in the 1960s. Source: People Magazine/The Obama Foundation   Born in Hawaii in 1961, Barack Obama grew up in both Indonesia and Hawaii before moving to the continental US to pursue his degree. After graduating from Columbia University with a BA in political science in 1983, he spent a brief period working in the private sector in New York City. He then relocated to Chicago’s South Side and began the work that would ultimately lead him into politics—and the White House.   Obama began working with Chicago’s Developing Communities Project in 1985, coordinating with organizations in low-income communities to improve housing and offer job training. He shifted course in 1988, entering Harvard Law School and becoming the first Black president of the Harvard Law Review before returning to Chicago to continue his mission. He first worked with Project Vote for the 1992 election, aimed at increasing Black voter turnout, before joining a small law firm where his practice focused on civil rights cases.   Obama’s official Senate portrait, October 2005. Source: Barack Obama-US Senator for Illinois/Internet Archive   Obama’s political career began in 1996 when he was elected to the Illinois State Senate, where he became a productive legislator before moving on to run for national office in 2004. He delivered a highly regarded keynote address emphasizing national unity at the 2004 Democratic National Convention before going on to win his Senate race with 70% of the vote, due in part to his Republican challenger’s personal scandals. Only the fifth Black Senator in US history, Obama began to make a name for himself in national politics, championing messages of hope and change, and formally entered the presidential race in February 2007.   The 2008 Democratic primary initially pitted Obama against a number of competitors, but the field was quickly whittled down to just three viable options: Obama, Hillary Clinton, and John Edwards. By early 2008, just Clinton and Obama remained. Obama pulled off a surprising eight-point win in the Iowa caucuses, long believed to gauge the political leanings of the nation, but the race remained tight throughout the primaries. Though many political pundits had essentially declared Obama the winner by April, Clinton battled onward, finally conceding the nomination in June.   On the Campaign Trail Obama speaks at the DNC in Denver, Colorado, after securing the party’s nomination for president, 2008. Source: Library of Congress, Washington DC   The 2008 election pitted Obama and his running mate, Joe Biden, on the Democratic ticket against Republican John McCain and his VP selection, Sarah Palin. Obama’s campaign heavily emphasized the need for change, not only of the party in power but of the partisan politics that had long held sway in Washington, as well as the foreign and domestic policy debacles that were weighing down the current administration.   As a relative newcomer to Congress, Obama was able to position himself as an outsider while still touting years of experience in the kind of on-the-ground, grassroots political activism that had become increasingly popular with young voters. He was skilled at reading the voting public. Thus, early on, Obama latched onto a unifying issue that appealed to voters across the spectrum, healthcare reform, making affordable and accessible healthcare for all Americans a key element of his campaign platform.   As the Bush presidency was winding down, his approval rating plummeted to just 22%, leaving McCain in the difficult position of being the heir apparent to one of the most unpopular presidents in modern American history. In contrast, Obama could drive home his “change” message by citing the failings of the Bush administration and McCain’s support for many of its policies. When the long-brewing financial crisis finally erupted in late 2008, it was another nail in the GOP’s coffin.   While VP candidates are often an afterthought, McCain’s choice of running mate—the relatively unknown Alaska governor perhaps chosen because she was a political outsider—backfired rather quickly. Palin’s arguable charm could not disguise her ignorance of many policy issues, which drew increased attention because of McCain’s age and the possibility that Palin could ultimately take over the presidency. On the other hand, Obama, 47 years old compared with McCain’s 72, selected a career politician with years of experience, particularly in foreign policy, as his running mate, which may have reassured voters concerned about electing a newcomer.   Obama and his running mate, Joe Biden, celebrating their victory on election night, by Linda Davidson, November 2008. Source: Linda Davidson/The Washington Post   The 2008 presidential election was also the first in which the Internet, and more specifically social media, played a prominent role. It had become much easier to reach out to young voters, who were particularly fed up with the US entanglements in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as other groups the major parties often ignored because they did not usually vote or contribute to presidential campaigns. The Internet evened the playing field, enabling low-cost outreach across different demographic groups, and the Obama campaign took full advantage.   While the political establishment had traditionally been focused on big-money donors, the 2008 election showcased the fundraising power of $5 and $10 donations from people from all walks of life. Obama, in fact, refused public funding that was available to his campaign in favor of citizen donations, raising $750 million for his presidential run—three times what McCain raised.   For a variety of reasons, Obama energized voters: he was young and charismatic with a captivating speaking style, he came from outside the political establishment with fresh policy proposals to accompany his message of change, and he had years of experience working on the ground with ordinary Americans.   And he was Black.   Though wrong to overstate it, it would be a mistake to ignore the role race played in the 2008 election. Americans of all backgrounds were excited at the prospect of the country’s first Black president. For Black Americans, in particular, it meant finally seeing themselves represented in the country’s highest office. For white Americans, it was a rejection of the country’s entrenched racism and a symbol of how far the American voting public had come.   America’s First Black President Obama being sworn in as the 44th president of the United States, by Master Sgt. Cecilio Ricardo, January 2009. Source: US Air Force   On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama was elected President of the United States. Ultimately, Obama secured a solid victory, collecting 365 electoral votes and 53% of the popular vote, with nearly 70 million Americans opting for Obama over McCain. Voter turnout swelled, with 63% of eligible voters casting a ballot, the highest percentage since the 1960 presidential election, and nine states flipped from red to blue. Exit polls showed Obama was especially popular among young and minority voters.   The election of the first Black president led some pundits to quickly declare a post-racial America; his victory was lauded by some as definitive proof that skin color was no longer the limiting factor it once was. In his victory speech, Obama summed up the importance of the historic moment: “If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer… It’s been a long time coming, but tonight, because of what we did on this day, in this election, at this defining moment, change has come to America.”   Barack Obama, Kehinde Wiley, oil on canvas, 2018. Source: The Smithsonian Institution/The National Portrait Gallery, Washington DC   This optimism was perhaps too hasty, with some scholars arguing, in retrospect, that rather than marking the country’s moving beyond its racist past, the election of the first Black president ultimately highlighted and even deepened racial tensions. Numerous race-related issues that persisted throughout his terms can be cited, including the use of racist tropes, like birtherism, to object to his presidency and the rise of—and vociferous opposition to—the Black Lives Matter movement in response to a number of racially motivated police shootings.   Additional proof of the country’s failure to break with its racist past was perhaps best seen with the Shelby County v. Holder Supreme Court decision that gutted the Voting Rights Act during Obama’s second term. The decision had an immediate impact on nearly 50 years of progress in voting access and turnout, allowing states to implement new restrictions and regulations that disproportionately impacted the Black and minority voters who had propelled Obama to the presidency.   Obama’s victory was a hard-fought, historic achievement, but hardly the death knell for racism in the United States that so many were anticipating.

  Ghost towns are not exclusive to Texas and California. Yes, for instance, states like Utah have their fair share of these intriguing relics as well, and what’s so impressive about them is their historical depth. You won’t believe the stories of many of these towns and how they transformed from bustling communities into deserted remnants. We’ve handpicked for you 10 of these ghost towns in the Beehive State, each with a past that will captivate you. So grab your map, and let’s discover the secrets buried in these forgotten places.   1. Frisco Frisco Ghost Town, Utah. Source: Flickr   Once a booming hub for silver mining, this legendary Utah ghost town was established in 1875. Frisco thrived around the Horn Silver Mine, one of the richest silver mines in the US. The town had around 6,000 residents at its peak, and it quickly became known as the “wildest mining town in the West.” This is because it was notorious for lawlessness, daily brawls, and saloons lining its streets. It was all chaos that a sheriff was eventually appointed to maintain order.   The success of Frisco declined after a disastrous mine collapse in 1885. This marked the beginning of the abandonment of the town. If you’re planning to visit Frisco today (which you should), you’ll have the chance to explore remnants of its historic charcoal kilns. These were essential for Frisco’s metal smelting processes. They are listed today on the National Register of Historic Places.   On top of that, the Frisco Cemetery and scattered mining equipment are a must-see. They’re an illustration of the ghostly past of the once-thriving Utah town.   2. Thistle What remains of the former school at Thistle, Utah. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Thistle was made a ghost town not a long time ago. It wasn’t until 1983 that all the drama unfolded with a devastating landslide that hit the town. Before that, it was a thriving railroad in Spanish Fork Canyon that was established in the late 1880s. Thistle was essential for refueling and supplying trains on the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad.   Over the years, the town grew to include a schoolhouse, homes, saloons, and even a small rail yard. However, the importance of Thistle declined as steam engines gave way to diesel trains. By 1982, only a few families remained.   Circling back to the most devastating event that hit Thistle, it was in the spring of 1983 when unusually heavy rain and melting snow caused a massive landslide that dammed the Spanish Fork River. It led to a flood that submerged the whole town. While the area was evacuated, the town was underwater within days. This resulted in one of the most expensive natural disasters in US history.   Today, you’ll have the chance to view the eerie, half-submerged remains from US Route 6, with foundations and the schoolhouse barely visible above the murky water.   3. Grafton Ghost town of Grafton, Utah. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Grafton is a picturesque ghost town located near the famous Zion National Park. It has a history marked by resilience and hardship. The town was originally a farming community established by Mormon settlers in 1859. It was plagued by frequent flooding from the Virgin River, which led to a complete relocation in 1862. Despite efforts to establish orchards and support the community, Grafton struggled with isolation, limited arable land, and tensions during the Black Hawk War in 1866, which led to a temporary evacuation. Many families eventually moved to nearby Rockville, where conditions were more favorable.   Grafton’s population had dwindled by the early 1900s. In 1944, its last residents departed. Today, the town is famous for its well-preserved structures, including a schoolhouse, cemetery, and chapel. Grafton is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The fact that it was the filming location for Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and other movies makes it the perfect destination if you’re drawn to cinematic history.   The memory of Grafton is kept alive thanks to restoration efforts by the Grafton Heritage Partnership.   4. Silver Reef American Smelting and Refining Company works in Silver Reef, Utah. Source: Wikimedia Commons   When prospector John Kemple discovered silver embedded in sandstone around the late 1800s, it was a highly unusual ecological find in Utah’s Silver Reef. This has definitely turned the area into a unique mining town. Silver Reef was officially established in 1875. The town quickly expanded as miners and entrepreneurs arrived. This transformed it into a bustling boomtown.   Home to around 2,500 residents at its peak, Silver Reef boasted a mile-long main street with multiple businesses, including a Wells Fargo office, which still stands today and now houses a museum. The town continued thriving up until the 1880s. This was when a global decline in silver prices and challenges with flooding mines led to Silver Reef’s decline. Most operations ceased by 1891, and the town was gradually abandoned.   You’ll be able to witness remnants of Silver Reef’s storied past today, including the Wells Fargo building, the jail, and the stone kilns that were once used for ore processing. As for the museum, it provides you with a glimpse into the rich history of this Utah town, preserving the legacy of this rare silver-in-sandstone discovery.   5. Mercur Mercury Mine, Mercur, Utah. Source: Picryl   Due to its mining history, Mercur saw multiple boom-and-bust cycles. The town was originally established in the 1870s as Lewiston and was later renamed Mercur after a vein of cinnabar (mercury ore) was discovered in the area. It truly prospered in the 1890s when a gold ledge was discovered, and Mercur became famous for pioneering the cyanide process for gold extraction. This in itself revolutionized mining in the United States.   During its heyday, Mercur housed a thriving community of around 5,000 people and became known for its bustling main street and a tight-knit Italian immigrant population who introduced local traditions, like Columbus Day celebrations.   Mercur faced devastating fires in 1896 and 1902, yet it was rebuilt each time, though it finally succumbed to economic pressures in 1913 when gold production became unprofitable. Today, Mercur has been almost completely erased by modern strip mining operations, with only the Mercur Cemetery remaining as a haunting reminder of the town’s past. The cemetery is accessible to visitors and offers a poignant glimpse into the lives of those who endured Mercur’s boom-and-bust cycles in pursuit of fortune in the rugged Utah landscape.   6. Alta Top of Sugarloaf lift at Alta, UT. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This one began as a bustling silver mining town in the 1860s. It was known for its rich silver deposits in Little Cottonwood Canyon, where it quickly grew to house thousands of miners and developed a lively main street with saloons and hotels. However, Alta faced several setbacks, including an economic downturn, wildfires, and a devastating avalanche in 1885. All of these collectively led to its decline. By 1895, the town was nearly abandoned, and it experienced only brief mining resurgences in the early 20th century before becoming a ghost town by the 1930s.   In 1938, the Utah town found new life. This was when the area’s deep snow and mountainous terrain attracted attention for ski resort development. With assistance from Norwegian ski legend Alf Engen and the U.S. Forest Service, the first ski lift opened in 1939, and Boom, Alta is turned into a premier ski destination.   The Alta Ski Area is still even popular today, where it offers world-class powder skiing, lodging, and recreational activities year-round.   Whether you want to explore the remnants of Alta’s mining past or you’d like to enjoy the modern ski facilities in town, both of these options are within your reach if you visit this historic ghost town in Utah.   7. Cisco Ghost town of Cisco in Utah. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the 1880s, Cisco began as a railroad town. It served as a vital water and supply station for the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad. Thanks to the fact that it was located along key rail lines, the town also supported the region’s cattle and sheep industries. How did it exactly do that? By simply acting as a hub for livestock operations.   With the discovery of oil and natural gas in the 1920s, Cisco saw a surge in development, including a post office, general store, and schoolhouse. All of this sustained the town well into the mid-20th century.   However, the rise of diesel engines and the construction of Interstate 70 in the 1970s diverted traffic away from Cisco. And then, the decline began. It was the unavoidable eventual abandonment. Today, you can still see Cisco’s haunting, sun-bleached remnants, including the empty buildings, a general store, and the original post office. They’re still standing, and the atmosphere they create draws both artists and film crews alike. Recently, an artist residency and a small store have brought life back to town, where a few residents now continue its story as a re-emerging artistic enclave.   Visitors today can view these remnants of a once-thriving town along Interstate 70 but should respect the private properties within Cisco’s limits.   8. Modena B.J. Lund & Company, Old hotel and store, Modena, Utah. Source: Flickr   Supporting the steam engines on the Utah and Nevada Railway: this was the main objective of establishing Modena in 1899. Located in Iron County, near the Nevada border, this Utah town grew so fast as a key stop for freight and water supplies. The economic activity in town expanded through the early 20th century, serving local ranchers, miners, and travelers moving between Utah and Nevada.   It developed a vibrant main street with hotels, saloons, and the notable B.J. Lund General Store, which you can still see today.   With the advent of diesel engines and the bypassing of Modena by major highways, the importance of the town dwindled. This led to its near abandonment. Though it has faded significantly, Modena still attracts visitors with its preserved historic buildings, such as the ruins of the Last Chance Saloon and its small cemetery.   9. Ophir The Lawrence Brothers and Company Store, a historic building in Ophir, Utah. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ophir is named after the biblical land rich in precious metals. It was founded in the 1860s after soldiers stationed at nearby Camp Douglas discovered silver deposits in the area. By the 1870s, the town boasted a population of around 6,000 people and was known for its lively atmosphere, with saloons, brothels, and dance halls lining its streets. Ophir thrived on mining silver, lead, zinc, and copper, though its prosperity began to wane as ore quality declined and easier opportunities lured miners elsewhere.   Today, Ophir has transformed into a well-preserved “living ghost town” with a handful of residents and carefully restored historic buildings, including an original town hall and a cluster of old structures with mining artifacts on display. The town attracts history enthusiasts, who can explore its mining-era streets while respecting private properties.   10. Sego The former general store building in the ghost town of Sego, Utah. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This unique Utah town is known for its coal mining past rather than the gold and silver rushes typical of the region. In the early 1890s, rancher Harry Ballard discovered coal seams in the area and began small-scale operations. By 1911, he sold the mine to investors. This was when the town grew with the establishment of a company store, boarding houses, and infrastructure to support a thriving coal industry. However, water shortages, labor disputes, and economic challenges consistently hampered Sego’s growth. In 1947, the mine closed, and decline began.   If you visit the town nestled in the scenic Sego Canyon, you’ll be able to explore the town’s remnants. This includes the stone company store, collapsed boarding houses, and an old cemetery. You’ll also witness in the area ancient rock art from Native American tribes. This would be interesting if you love to explore the cultural depth of the regions you’re visiting.

  The brutal and unforgiving American frontier created a different kind of man. These explorers, fur trappers, guides, and frontiersmen led the American expansion in the first years of the 1800s. The best became legendary, like John Colter, Kit Carson, and Jim Bridger. Mountain men roamed the wilds alone or in small groups, becoming skilled in survival, exploration, and trading furs with Native American tribes.   What Made the Mountain Men Go into the Wilderness? 1803 Louisiana Purchase Map. Source: Bureau of Land Management   With the 1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, the United States’s size almost doubled. With so much unknown territory, the chance to become rich and adventure lured men into the wilderness. The Lewis and Clark expedition’s reports only fueled that desire. Also, the insatiable fur trade demand in Europe and the East Coast drew men West, especially for beaver pelts. Wiped out in Europe, beaver skins were popular as hats and commanded high prices. Other highly sought-after skins included otter, muskrat, and mink.   Who Was the First Famous Mountain Man? Colter’s Map. Source: U.S. Geological Survey   John Colter’s story became among the first known of the mountain men. Born in 1775, he grew up in a then-frontier Kentucky. His story began in 1803 when he enlisted in Lewis and Clark’s Corp of Discovery as a hunter and scout. Colter’s wilderness skills, toughness, and independence quickly gained his boss’s trust. Soon, he scouted alone far ahead of the expedition. Upon the Corp’s 1806 conclusion in St. Louis after an 8,000-mile trip, Colter left with two other trappers. The trio sought beaver pelts in areas like Montana.   Ever restless, Colter traveled hundreds of miles solo during the harsh winter of 1807. He trapped and traded, exploring areas like Wyoming, Nebraska, and Idaho. He became the first non-Native man to view Yellowstone’s geysers, afterward known as “Colter’s Hell.” Yet the traumatic event that happened next cemented his mountain man legend.   What Happened to John Colter? John Colter, historical panel.   While trapping in 1808 in Montana, a Blackfeet war party ambushed Colter and killed his companion, John Potts. Like a bit from a movie plot, he was tortured and told to run. Naked and wounded, Colter escaped, even killing a pursuer. He hid in a river log jam and somehow walked hundreds of miles to the nearest fort. In 1810, Colter returned to Missouri, where 1813, he passed from jaundice.   How Did Kit Carson Become a Mountain Man? Kit Carson 1864. Source: San Diego History Center   Kit Carson’s adventurous life started like many of the mountain men. Upon leaving his Kentucky home at age 17, Carson joined a trading expedition in 1826. He roamed the West as a trapper, guide, and explorer. His navigation skills and reputation became such that in 1842, John Fremont hired Carson to guide his U.S. government expedition. Carson married into two Native American tribes. Carson’s first wife passed away, and the second divorced him. Carson explored, fought alongside, and became friends with the storied Jim Bridger. Carson also became famous in the ever-popular dime novels in usually exaggerated stories.   Why Is Kit Carson Considered Controversial?   Despite his solid reputation as a guide, Civil War officer, and even Indian Agent Carson’s later actions shadowed his legacy. He mediated several disputes with Native tribes and settlers, being able to speak Comanche, Apache, Navajo, Spanish, and more. Carson did fight in several campaigns or actions, such as the Long Walk of the Navajo, where several thousand people died. Kit Carson passed away in 1868 in Taos, New Mexico.   Why Does Jim Bridger Standout as a Mountain Man? Fort Bridger, Wyoming. Source: Library of Congress   Jim Bridger was born in Virginia on March 17, 1804, and passed on July 17, 1881. During his lifetime, Bridger’s exploits and legacy are only surpassed by Hugh Glass. Filled with the mountain man’s restless energy, Bridger traveled west from Missouri to California. His twenty years of trapping and wandering took him from Canada to Utah. His ability to survive bad weather, plus constant encounters with animals or locals, both white and Native, helped build his reputation. Bridger also spoke decent Spanish, French, Shoshone, Blackfoot, and Flathead.   Bridger Pass. Source: National Park Service   Bridger is believed to be the first non-Native to see the Great Salt Lake in 1824. He mistook this for the Pacific Ocean. With the decline of the fur trade after 1840, Bridger guided settlers across the mountains. With his picture-perfect memory, he successfully led wagon trains on the Oregon Trail, avoiding pitfalls or potential delays. He married three times, his wives passed away, but they had five children.   He served as a U.S. Army scout in two wars. Bridger’s biggest feats came with establishing Fort Bridger in Utah and locating Bridger’s Pass. The Pass he discovered in 1850 reduced travel time on the Oregon Trail by 61 miles. Jim Bridger died in1881 at his daughter’s Missouri farm due to bad health but left an incredible legacy.

  Though Black men had been granted the right to vote with the 15th Amendment in 1870, and Black women with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, state and local laws, disenfranchisement tactics, and violent intimidation hindered their ability to exercise that right well into the 20th century. The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s was instrumental in securing voting equality legislation and an end to some of the most common forms of voter suppression.   Racial Equality: Law vs. Reality The first vote, A.R. Waud, 1867. Source: Library of Congress   By the mid-20th century, all adult citizens, regardless of race or gender, had been granted the right to vote under federal law. The reality on the ground, however, was quite different, particularly for Black citizens who had faced numerous impediments to voting since the Fifteenth Amendment had enshrined Black men’s right to vote in 1870. Especially prevalent in former Confederate states, impediments included both formal legal measures and informal on-the-ground tactics.   State and local level laws rescinding Black men’s right to vote, including “grandfather clauses” designed to limit voting to only men whose grandfathers could vote prior to 1867, were implemented in many southern states. Poll taxes, a levy on voters that had largely disappeared prior to 1870, were among the most common practices adopted in the 19th century to limit Black voter participation. Literacy tests were another common way to prevent Black men from voting, since, in many states, it had been illegal to teach enslaved people to read.   The Colored National Convention held at Nashville, April 5-7, 1876. Source: The New York Public Library Digital Collections.   In the Reconstruction era, the military was often enlisted to help protect Black voters and ensure they were not physically prevented from voting. As the Reconstruction period came to an end in 1877 and troops withdrew from the former Confederate states, such safeguards disappeared, and outright intimidation was used more and more frequently. One such tactic was the creation of lists of Black registered voters to advise white citizens regarding who should be targeted and “challenged” on election days.   Disenfranchising Black voters also largely kept Black citizens out of office, particularly at the national level. Despite a flurry of Black citizens running for—and winning—office during the immediate post-Civil War era, by the early 20th century, the Black vote had been so sufficiently suppressed that after North Carolina Congressman George Henry White left office in 1901, there were no Black representatives in the House for nearly 30 years and no Black Senators elected until 1967.   The Birth of the Civil Rights Movement US deputy marshals escort 6-year-old Ruby Bridges, the first Black student, from William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, 1960. Source: Eric Marrapodi/CNN   By the mid-20th century, “separate but equal” had reigned for nearly 50 years, with Black and white citizens segregated in many public spaces but supposedly equal under the law. In reality, Jim Crow laws in the South, where the majority of Black citizens resided, ensured that everything from public facilities to legal protections to employment opportunities for Black Americans remained demonstrably inferior to white Americans. Though such laws were not enacted in the North, stark racial disparities and discrimination remained, nonetheless.   World War II marked a turning point that opened political space for Black activism. The demand for labor and soldiers led both government employment and military service to be opened to all Americans, regardless of race. As more Black Americans moved away from the agricultural South into the manufacturing North, where fewer restrictions and limitations impeded their ability to vote, politicians began courting their support, providing some of the necessary political capital to begin actively pushing for equal rights. The shifting social and cultural dynamics of the war and post-war eras also drew increased attention to issues of racial injustice among white Americans.   The push for equal rights coalesced into a recognizable movement in the 1950s, with Black activists staging protests, sit-ins, and boycotts that attracted nationwide attention, won hard-fought victories, and often sparked violent backlash. Slowly, “separate but equal” and the laws that upheld segregation began to fall, perhaps most notably when the Supreme Court struck down school segregation in the Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954.   Getting Out the Vote Civil rights activists, including Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and John Lewis, marching from Selma to Montgomery Alabama, March 1965. Source: Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington DC.   Characteristically, voting was still marked by dramatic inequality in the mid-20th century. The same tactics that had been used since the post-Civil War days were still in use to suppress Black voters, particularly in the South, where the Ku Klux Klan was responsible for numerous murders of Black citizens who had dared to vote. As of 1940, only 3% of eligible Black voters in the region were actually registered to vote; intimidation and fear were powerful deterrents.   Given this stark disparity, registering Black voters and actively encouraging their participation in elections was one of the key goals of the civil rights movement. Efforts included voter registration drives, organizing transportation to the polls, and literacy classes, in addition to legal challenges, largely brought by the NAACP, to discriminatory voting laws at the state and local levels.   Unsurprisingly, efforts were met with sharp resistance. Registrars simply turned Black voters away or even resigned to prevent anyone from registering. Literacy tests were manipulated to ensure eligible Black voters failed. A rise in redistricting to dilute the power of Black voters was also seen. Voting rights activists were assaulted or lost their jobs. Several activists in Mississippi were murdered. Perhaps most prominently, a peaceful march for voting rights in Selma, Alabama, in 1965, led by future Congressman John Lewis, was met with police violence that was broadcast nationwide and sparked broad outrage.   Sample of a literacy test from Louisiana, 1964. Source: Slate   Despite the collective efforts of civil rights activists and a number of favorable rulings striking down state and local laws that disenfranchised Black voters, progress was marginal, particularly in the South. State and local officials simply refused to cooperate with efforts to enfranchise Black voters. “The Department of Justice’s efforts to eliminate discriminatory election practices by litigation on a case-by-case basis had been unsuccessful in opening up the registration process; as soon as one discriminatory practice or procedure was proven to be unconstitutional and enjoined, a new one would be substituted in its place and litigation would have to commence anew.”   1965: The Voting Rights Act President Lyndon B. Johnson gives one of the pens he used to sign the Voting Rights Act to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., August 6, 1965. Source: National Archives   Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, as well as Congress, had been meeting with civil rights organizations to try to address their concerns since the early 1960s, resulting in legislation like the 24th Amendment, which outlawed poll taxes at the federal level, and the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which aimed to promote equality and end discrimination for Black citizens in a number of areas, including employment and housing. The particular intractability of the voting rights issue, however, led to the conclusion that legislation specific to voting rights was necessary.   On August 5, 1965, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, outlawing all discriminatory practices designed to disenfranchise citizens on the basis of race: “No voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure shall be imposed or applied by any State or political subdivision to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color.”   The VRA shifted oversight of voting rights enforcement to the Justice Department and, notably,  included special provisions for jurisdictions with a history of discriminatory voting practices. Section 5 required that any change to voting laws be preapproved by the Attorney General or District Court of Washington DC. It also allowed for federal examiners, authorized to register voters, to be dispatched to these jurisdictions and directed the Attorney General to challenge state and local poll taxes in court.   President Johnson signed the Act into law with civil rights activist Rosa Parks at his side, stating: “The vote is the most powerful instrument ever devised by man for breaking down injustice and destroying the terrible walls which imprison men because they are different from other men.”   VRA: The First Decade Shirley Chisholm with the founding members of the Congressional Black Caucus, 1971. Source: US House of Representatives via Wikimedia Commons   While some provisions of the Voting Rights Act would take time to be implemented or bear results, other consequences were more immediately apparent. Within days of the Act’s signing, federal examiners were sent to nine jurisdictions, indicating the administration’s intention to enforce its laws. The Act also almost immediately faced challenges to its constitutionality in Southern states but was upheld repeatedly by the Supreme Court.   An increase in Black voter registration was seen within just a few months. By the end of 1965, 250,000 new Black voters had been registered across the country. In Dallas County, Alabama, where civil rights activists had been targeted by state troopers in Selma, the number of registered Black voters leaped from just 2% in 1965 to over 70% in 1968. This trend was seen throughout the Southern states, where the average percentage of eligible Black voters registered hit 62% in 1969, compared with 43% in 1964. Within a decade, the overall disparity between white and Black voter registration rates dropped from 30 percentage points to 8.   The representation of Black citizens in government also began to tick upward over the next decade, with Black mayors elected in some major US cities, the first Black Senator elected since the Reconstruction era, and Shirley Chisholm becoming the first Black woman to serve in Congress, elected in 1968.   Legacy: The VRA in the 21st Century President Barack Obama, civil rights leader John Lewis, and others prepared to walk across the Edmund Pettus Bridge to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the Selma to Montgomery civil rights marches, photo by Lawrence Jackson, 2015. Source: The White House   Once a hallmark of the pursuit of racial justice, the VRA has faced numerous legal challenges and revisions in the decades since its passage. Though it has been reauthorized multiple times in the nearly 60 years since it was first passed, a controversial 2013 Supreme Court decision, Shelby County v. Holder, found Section 4 of the Act, containing the formula by which the federal government determined which jurisdictions were subject to the Act’s remaining special provisions, unconstitutional. This decision effectively gutted the VRA, eliminating the need for any state to seek the approval of the Department of Justice before making changes to voting laws.   Poll taxes and literacy tests are relics of the past, but other discriminatory practices that suppress Black and other minority votes still remain: voter ID laws, gerrymandering, and inadequate voting facilities are just some of the issues that activists maintain are intended to suppress minority voter turnout or dilute the power of minority voters. Without the protections of the VRA, new laws and policies are again subject to the arduous case-by-case litigation that plagued early efforts to end discriminatory voting practices.   Black representation in government has also continued to see gains but remains uneven, particularly at the state and federal levels. The number of Black representatives in the House is roughly equal to the percentage of the US population that is Black today, 13%, but the number of Senators and Governors remains low—there is just one Black governor in office as of 2024. Research also indicates that the gap between white and non-white voter turnout has grown over the last decade.   While significant progress has been made in voting equality since the civil rights era, ongoing challenges and more recent backsliding suggest the project remains unfinished.

  Following the successful Cuban Revolution, Che Guevara quickly became a prominent figure on the world’s political stage. Amid the tensions of the Cold War, the charismatic revolutionary emerged as a leader and champion of socialist ideals. During the mid-1960s, Guevara spent considerable time on the African continent, establishing relationships with notable African leaders. Despite his fame and enduring interest in the revolutionary’s life, the time Guevara spent in Africa is often forgotten.   Who Was Che Guevara? Che Guevara (left) with Fidel Castro (right), 1961. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ernesto “Che” Guevara was born on June 14, 1928 in Rosario, Argentina. As a young man, he studied medicine at the University of Buenos Aires before embarking on his famous motorcycle trip around South America. It was upon this journey that Guevara first witnessed the poverty and inequality around the continent. After becoming increasingly engrossed in Marxism, Guevara was inspired to fight against capitalism and imperialism.   Guevara first met Fidel Castro in Mexico in 1955 and agreed to join Castro’s revolutionary 26th of July Movement. The following year, Guevara, along with Castro and his forces, landed in Cuba with the hopes of overthrowing the dictator Fulgencio Batista. Rising to prominence as a key commander of the revolution, Guevara played a crucial role in the revolution’s guerrilla campaign.   Following victory over the Batista regime, Guevara assumed a leading role within the new communist leadership of Cuba. Notably, he served as Minister of Industries and President of the National Bank of Cuba, thus playing a key role in shaping Cuban economic policy. Guevara quickly emerged as a popular figure both within Cuba and around the world, famous for his charisma and for his trademark beret.   The Birth of Cuban Internationalism  Fidel Castro and leader of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev in New York, 1960. Source: National Security Archive   Cuban foreign policy following the revolution became defined by the concept of Cuban internationalism. Greatly inspired by the works of Marx, Engels, and Lenin, internationalism sought to encourage the working class to shed national identity in order to fight against the common enemy of imperialism and class oppression under capitalism.   Starting in 1959, Cuba established an intricate international network of connections with other socialist states and movements. Cuba was one of the first nations to support the new Algerian government following the Algerian War of Independence. Throughout the 1960s and 70s, Cuba provided significant assistance to numerous liberation movements around the world.   Che Guevara was a prominent advocate for this form of engagement. As an Argentinian who committed himself to fighting for Cuban freedom, he was an embodiment of internationalism. Guevara was a revolutionary at heart, and his conviction to spreading revolution would see him become increasingly disinterested in Cuban domestic politics and instead inspire him to seek greater fulfilment abroad.   Guevara Embarks on His World Tour  Che Guevara speaking at the United Nations. Source: United Nations   Beginning in December 1964, Guevara embarked on a diplomatic world tour. On December 11, he addressed the United Nations in New York. In his speech, he advocated for the peaceful coexistence of all states and nuclear disarmament amid increasing tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. He severely criticized the United States for its aggression toward Cuba and its failed Bay of Pigs invasion, as well as its continued role in Vietnam and indiscriminate bombing campaigns in Cambodia and Laos. Turning his attention to Africa, Guevara expressed solidarity with the ongoing independence wars in Angola and Mozambique. He decried the assassination of Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and criticized the United Nations’ role in the Congo Crisis. Finally, Guevara attacked the apartheid regime of South Africa.   Following his provocative speech at the UN, Guevara spent the next three months traveling the world. His main aims were to meet and consult with other socialist leaders, reaffirm Cuba’s commitment to supporting radical governments in the developing world, and offer assistance to liberation movements fighting against imperialism.   Guevara spent considerable time in Africa, which, as a continent desperately breaking free of Europe’s imperialist grips, was seen as fertile ground for the spread of socialist ideals. While in Africa, Guevara visited Algeria, Egypt, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Benin, the Congo, and Tanzania, and established close relations with many of those nations’ leaders. He also attempted to negotiate military assistance for guerrilla movements in Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Rhodesia, and the Congo.   Guevara’s Visit to Algeria  Algerian President Ahmed Ben Bella. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Algeria had become a firm friend of the Cuban government following Cuba’s support for Algeria in the immediate aftermath of its independence. As such, Algeria became a base of sorts for Guevara’s escapades across Africa.   In February 1965, Guevara made another speech, this time at the Afro-Asian Conference hosted in the Algerian capital, Algiers, which representatives of 63 nations attended. During his speech, Guevara discussed the common bond between Asia and Africa in their struggles for freedom. Thus, he advocated for greater economic support between emerging socialist nations. He further denounced capitalism as a tool for imperialist economic domination and described the United States as “the imperialist enemy.”   During his time in Algeria, Guevara became well acquainted with Algerian President Ahmed Ben Bella. The two would meet on numerous occasions during Guevara’s one-month stay in the country. Later, on the 30th anniversary of Guevara’s assassination, Ben Bella penned an article for the French newspaper Le Monde Diplomatique. Ben Bella heralded Guevara as a “courageous fighter” and expressed his grief over his death. Guevara’s legacy in Algeria is still visible today, with a prominent boulevard on Algiers seafront being named in his honor.   Guevara in Ghana Kwame Nkrumah, President of Ghana. Source: Africa is a Country   Guevara arrived in Ghana on January 14, 1965, leading a six-member Cuban delegation to meet Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah. Nkrumah was a leading figure in Ghana’s independence movement. He first served as Prime Minister while Ghana was still under British control before becoming elected as the nation’s first President in 1960. Nkrumah was a firm socialist and nationalist and became a prominent figure in Africa’s struggle against colonialism. Thus, he showed potential to become a key ally of the Cuban government.   During his time in Ghana, Guevara visited numerous development projects, such as the Tema Harbor and the Akosombo Dam. He also met with journalists and students and made several public addresses. Guevara was incredibly complimentary of Ghana’s development under Nkrumah. On at least two occasions, Nkrumah and Guevara held talks over potential cooperation between Ghana and Cuba, with Nkrumah also hosting a state dinner in Guevara’s honor.   However, the potential for Cuban-Ghanaian cooperation was abruptly severed when, just a year after Guevara’s visit, Nkrumah was overthrown by a military coup d’état reportedly supported by the CIA. The new Ghanaian regime swiftly aligned itself with the United States and the Western Bloc.   Castro and Guevara Views Diverge Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. Source: ARSOF History   In the shadow of the ongoing Sino-Soviet Split, as relations between the two communist giants—the Soviet Union and China—deteriorated, the relationship between Guevara and Fidel Castro seemed to falter. Castro aligned closely with the Soviet Union. However, Guevara was critical of the Soviet Union’s foreign and economic policies. He also desired Cuba to be a catalyst and supporter for further socialist revolutions across Africa and Latin America.   Furthermore, disagreements over domestic Cuban politics strained Guevara’s commitment to Castro’s choice of political direction. As Minister of Industry and President of the National Bank, Guevara had played an important role in shaping the Cuban economy. Guevara’s economic policies were centered on rapid industrialization and centralization.   However, Guevara’s policies were proving ineffective and were being met with increasing criticism from within Cuba. Castro pivoted and attempted to slow down Cuba’s effort to industrialize. Instead, Castro preferred to focus on improving Cuba’s agricultural production, especially increasing the country’s sugar output. In numerous interviews, Guevara became increasingly critical of Cuba’s new economic policies and of Cuba’s leadership itself.   After his return to Cuba from his trip to Africa, Guevara fell out of public view for some time. His notable absence became the subject of much speculation. In November 1965, Castro publicly released a letter that Guevara had sent him in April. In the letter, Guevara solemnly resigned from all his positions within the Cuban government and even surrendered his Cuban citizenship.   A Rebellion in the Congo Che Guevara in the Congo, 1965. Source: Jacobin   The same month Guevara resigned from his positions in Cuba, he secretly entered the Democratic Republic of the Congo, leading a contingent of 100 Afro-Cuban fighters.   Guevara had pledged himself to support the ongoing Simba Rebellion. Following the death of Patrice Lumumba, his loyal supporters entered into an armed rebellion against the Congolese government beginning in 1964. The rebels, who became known as the Simbas (the Swahili word for lion), received support from both the Soviet Union and China. Despite his Algerian friend Ben Bella warning him against it, Guevara decided to enter the Congo to support the Simbas personally.   Ernesto “Che” Guevara photographed in 1960. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Upon his arrival, Guevara set upon the task of training the Simbas in his guerrilla tactics. However, he quickly encountered several obstacles that would soon derail his mission. Firstly, though Guevara’s motivation to enter the Congo was to fight against imperialist forces, Guevara was still spurred by his socialist ideology. However, the Simba rebels were not nearly as interested in political ideologies or inspired by Marxist ideals.   As a result, divisions and disagreements between Guevara and the Simba quickly emerged. This lack of cohesion was compounded by Guevara’s lack of understanding of the Simba’s spiritual values. Coming from tribal backgrounds, the Simbas were highly superstitious and revered witchcraft, which led to mutual distrust between the Simbas and the Cubans. Furthermore, the Cuban forces were ill-prepared for the harsh Congolese terrain, and many soon confessed their disillusionment with their mission.   Just seven months after arriving in the Congo, Guevara and his Cuban forces withdrew from the country on November 20, 1965. Guevara’s mission in the Congo was a devastating failure.   Evaluating Che Guevara’s African Legacy Che Guevara’s memorial in Cuba. Source: Journey Latin America   Two years after leaving the Congo, Guevara was executed by Bolivian forces while supporting an insurgency movement in the country. Guevara’s fate echoes many emerging radical leaders of the developing world during the Cold War.   Guevara’s travels in Africa represent a period of wider cooperation between the developing world. Despite the threat of the Cold War, emerging progressive states from Latin America, Africa, and Asia attempted to establish crucial ties of cooperation. Since the collapse of many socialist states, these examples of international cooperation have been limited.   Guevara became well acquainted with numerous prominent leaders in Africa. However, many met abrupt ends. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana was overthrown in a coup in 1966, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria was similarly deposed in 1965. As a result, much of Guevara’s efforts to foster relations in Africa ultimately yielded little progress. Guevara’s attempts to spread revolution in the Congo also failed. It is indicative of the difficulty in spreading revolution, especially to places with vastly different cultures and societal norms.   While Che Guevara’s exploits in Africa failed, it is telling of his commitment to his principles. Though Guevara remains a polarizing figure for many, his devotion to his cause cannot be questioned. It is for this reason that Che Guevara’s legacy endures and why he remains the recognized face of revolution.

  From 1939 to 1945, Europe was embroiled in a conflict that cost, by some estimates, as many as 80 million lives. It left the continent in ruins and introduced a trauma that is still with us today.   In May 1945, the Soviets rolled over Berlin. Hitler shot himself, and the Germans surrendered, bringing an end to the deadliest war in human history. Another threat, however, lurked on the horizon. As the industrial might of the United States and the Soviet Union reached unprecedented heights, even before the end of the war, it became clear that a new, even deadlier conflict was possible.   Thus, the Joint Planning Staff Committee was ordered to research military operations that would start a new war as a preemptive action to limit the Soviet Union’s power and westward advance.   This was known as Operation Unthinkable.   The End of the Second World War Map showing the expansion of Soviet influence as a result of Soviet offensives by the end of the Second World War. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At the end of the First World War, Russia, and, by extent, the Soviet Union, was in complete shambles. Communist revolution had ousted the Tsar, and the country was in the grip of a bloody civil war.   Less than three decades later, it emerged from the fires of the Second World War as a superpower with an incredibly large military capability. It occupied the territories of its former enemies as well as the countries liberated from German control.   The whole of Eastern Europe fell under the influence of Moscow. Winston Churchill was well aware that Stalin would keep hold of these territories and set up communist puppet governments, effectively making the Soviet Union even more powerful.   The Fate of Eastern Europe Winston Churchill campaigning for elections in 1945. Source: Public domain via picryl.com   Concerned for the future of Europe, Churchill had plans to “impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire,” even if it meant sparking a third world war. It was a brazen plan, to be sure, but it was one born out of desperation and fear of what the Soviet Union could achieve.   The Allies, seeing the incredible achievements of the Soviet Union in the final months of the war, acknowledged that underestimating Stalin and his forces was foolhardy. It was widely believed that Stalin would not stop at Berlin and that after defeating Germany, he would order Soviet forces to continue westwards.   At the forefront of Churchill’s mind was the fate of Poland. He was extremely unhappy with Poland falling under Soviet control, and his plans focused on liberating the country in a surprise attack. He commanded the plan to be drawn up in complete secrecy. In doing so, he wished to understand the feasibility of using force to stop the Soviet Union’s encroachment on the rest of Europe.   Churchill’s Fears The last remaining German defense on May 7, 1945. Source: National Air and Space Museum, Washington DC   As the war drew to a close with major Soviet advances, Churchill received reports that led him to conclude that many matters had to be settled with the Soviets to prevent a third world war.   Churchill was further alarmed by the decision to allow the Soviets to take Berlin. He viewed the massive buildup of millions of troops there as a potential threat, believing that the Soviets may not stop their advance and keep driving into the western half of Germany and possibly beyond.   He sent a telegram to Roosevelt informing the American president of his concerns, but Roosevelt was not interested in Churchill’s fears. Roosevelt thought that at this stage, the war against Japan would drag on into 1946, and he was hoping Stalin would declare war on the Empire of Japan and help defeat America’s enemy in the East.   He flatly refused to entertain Churchill’s notions and told the British prime minister that while they may be allies, the United States would never help Britain “hold on to its archaic, medieval empire.”   Roosevelt and Churchill. Source: National Museum of the US Navy, Washington DC   In April, Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. As Churchill discovered, Truman took a harder line with Stalin, and the British prime minister was delighted that the United States commander-in-chief now shared a similar vision. Truman’s stance, however, would be reined in by the State Department, which thought it better to avoid stoking the fires of conflict with the Soviet Union at this point.   As the war came to a close, there were fears on the front lines as well. In the north of Germany, the Allies received unconfirmed reports of Soviet paratrooper landings in Denmark. Naturally, these reports were relayed back to Churchill.   Soviets raising the Soviet flag of the Reichstag on May 2, 1945. Source: Public domain via Anne Frank House, Amsterdam   In addition, Churchill was, at this point, receiving many reports of widespread rape and destruction caused by Soviet troops in Berlin as well as in other territories occupied by the Soviets.   Another factor influencing Churchill to investigate further action was the stripping of factories in Germany and Eastern Europe of parts that were taken back to the Soviet Union. These actions were especially widespread in Poland, and it proved to Churchill that Stalin was not upholding his end of the deal struck in Yalta earlier that year.   It became plainly obvious that Stalin had no intention of allowing Poland to return to democracy, as the Western Allies had wished.   Military Considerations Winston Churchill firing a Thompson submachine gun. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It was clear that if the plan went ahead, the Western Allies would be outnumbered in virtually all military areas. By June 1, it was estimated that the Allies would have only 80 infantry divisions to oppose the Soviet’s 228. In terms of armored divisions, the Allies had 20 and the Soviet’s 36.   The Allies would also be outnumbered in the air. The Soviets had an estimated 13,000 aircraft of all types, while the Allies had just under 9,000.   In addition to these numbers, it was clear that while the Soviets had lost millions of troops in the first stages of the war, by the end of the war, they had achieved parity with the German capabilities. The Soviet army had gone from strength to strength and was highly motivated, well-trained, and extremely effective.   Required Circumstances Stalin at the Yalta Conference in 1945. Source: Public domain, National Archives via Wikimedia Commons   Of course, launching a war directly after the end of the most devastating war in history was not an issue that was approached with any degree of nonchalance. The Joint Chiefs of Staff drew up a list of circumstances that had to be met before any casus belli could be declared.   It was assumed that since the Soviet Union had not declared war on Japan yet, Stalin would ally the Soviet Union with Japan instead. The likelihood of this was a real consideration that the Joint Chiefs of Staff had to consider, and thus, it became a prerequisite for opening Western Allied hostilities against the Soviet Union.   It was also necessary to ensure the reliability of the alliances. The United Kingdom and the United States were expected to provide the bulk of the fighting force, which would be augmented by Canadian and German divisions. It was also necessary to attain assurances from the Poles that they would rise up against the Soviets.   Military considerations aside, it was also necessary to gain the full support of the British and American public. This requirement was highly unlikely to be met. Although aware of the danger the Soviets posed, it is unlikely that the majority of the populations would have supported a continuation of hostilities, especially in the United Kingdom, where the war had taken a terrible toll.   The Proposed Attack Proposed two-pronged attack into Poland. Source: Created by Greg Beyer using Google Earth and Paint3D   Operation Unthinkable laid out two routes of attack. It is unknown exactly what these plans entailed, as the maps that were drawn up were either destroyed or never released to the public. It is salient to point out that the conception of Operation Unthinkable itself was only made public knowledge in 1998.   The first route would require an armored thrust in the north towards the Baltic States. The second route would move southwest of Berlin towards Wrocław. It was clear that if this latter attack moved too far eastwards, the flanks would be exposed to attack from Soviet troops stationed in and around Czechoslovakia.   The plan had to be implemented with lightning speed and an element of surprise. The idea was that the quick punch to liberate Poland would shock Stalin and force him to the negotiation table.   Report Conclusions The report on Operation Unthinkable. Source: National Archives UK   Fortunately, the report that Churchill received about the possibility of achieving success made it very clear that an attack on Soviet forces would have disastrous consequences.   A quick victory, however unlikely, would still be possible, but if its effects were to have any lasting power, Russia (as the report refers to the Soviet Union throughout) would have to be completely defeated. Thus, a total war would be necessary to ensure Poland stayed out of Soviet control.   The report states,   “Even if all goes according to plan, we shall not have achieved, from the military point of view, a lasting result. The military power of Russia will not be broken and it will be open to her to recommence the conflict at any time she sees fit.”   It was also concluded that if war with the Soviet Union broke out, it would be impossible to limit it to a single theater, and it would, in all likelihood, end up being a global conflict.   Soviet flag. Source: goodfon.com   It is impossible to accurately imagine what might have happened had Operation Unthinkable come to fruition. It was hoped that a quick operation would force the Soviets out of Poland and that the Soviets would accept the outcome and agree to peace terms. This was an extremely risky gamble.   It was very likely that this would not occur, that the Western Allies and the Soviets would end up engaged in a protracted war and that if the Soviets achieved victory, they would extend their control even further into Western Europe.   Fortunately for everyone, Operation Unthinkable was shelved.

For followers of Christ, there’s always work to do. And not a lot of time to do it.