Following the successful Cuban Revolution, Che Guevara quickly became a prominent figure on the world’s political stage. Amid the tensions of the Cold War, the charismatic revolutionary emerged as a leader and champion of socialist ideals. During the mid-1960s, Guevara spent considerable time on the African continent, establishing relationships with notable African leaders. Despite his fame and enduring interest in the revolutionary’s life, the time Guevara spent in Africa is often forgotten.   Who Was Che Guevara? Che Guevara (left) with Fidel Castro (right), 1961. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ernesto “Che” Guevara was born on June 14, 1928 in Rosario, Argentina. As a young man, he studied medicine at the University of Buenos Aires before embarking on his famous motorcycle trip around South America. It was upon this journey that Guevara first witnessed the poverty and inequality around the continent. After becoming increasingly engrossed in Marxism, Guevara was inspired to fight against capitalism and imperialism.   Guevara first met Fidel Castro in Mexico in 1955 and agreed to join Castro’s revolutionary 26th of July Movement. The following year, Guevara, along with Castro and his forces, landed in Cuba with the hopes of overthrowing the dictator Fulgencio Batista. Rising to prominence as a key commander of the revolution, Guevara played a crucial role in the revolution’s guerrilla campaign.   Following victory over the Batista regime, Guevara assumed a leading role within the new communist leadership of Cuba. Notably, he served as Minister of Industries and President of the National Bank of Cuba, thus playing a key role in shaping Cuban economic policy. Guevara quickly emerged as a popular figure both within Cuba and around the world, famous for his charisma and for his trademark beret.   The Birth of Cuban Internationalism  Fidel Castro and leader of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev in New York, 1960. Source: National Security Archive   Cuban foreign policy following the revolution became defined by the concept of Cuban internationalism. Greatly inspired by the works of Marx, Engels, and Lenin, internationalism sought to encourage the working class to shed national identity in order to fight against the common enemy of imperialism and class oppression under capitalism.   Starting in 1959, Cuba established an intricate international network of connections with other socialist states and movements. Cuba was one of the first nations to support the new Algerian government following the Algerian War of Independence. Throughout the 1960s and 70s, Cuba provided significant assistance to numerous liberation movements around the world.   Che Guevara was a prominent advocate for this form of engagement. As an Argentinian who committed himself to fighting for Cuban freedom, he was an embodiment of internationalism. Guevara was a revolutionary at heart, and his conviction to spreading revolution would see him become increasingly disinterested in Cuban domestic politics and instead inspire him to seek greater fulfilment abroad.   Guevara Embarks on His World Tour  Che Guevara speaking at the United Nations. Source: United Nations   Beginning in December 1964, Guevara embarked on a diplomatic world tour. On December 11, he addressed the United Nations in New York. In his speech, he advocated for the peaceful coexistence of all states and nuclear disarmament amid increasing tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. He severely criticized the United States for its aggression toward Cuba and its failed Bay of Pigs invasion, as well as its continued role in Vietnam and indiscriminate bombing campaigns in Cambodia and Laos. Turning his attention to Africa, Guevara expressed solidarity with the ongoing independence wars in Angola and Mozambique. He decried the assassination of Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and criticized the United Nations’ role in the Congo Crisis. Finally, Guevara attacked the apartheid regime of South Africa.   Following his provocative speech at the UN, Guevara spent the next three months traveling the world. His main aims were to meet and consult with other socialist leaders, reaffirm Cuba’s commitment to supporting radical governments in the developing world, and offer assistance to liberation movements fighting against imperialism.   Guevara spent considerable time in Africa, which, as a continent desperately breaking free of Europe’s imperialist grips, was seen as fertile ground for the spread of socialist ideals. While in Africa, Guevara visited Algeria, Egypt, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Benin, the Congo, and Tanzania, and established close relations with many of those nations’ leaders. He also attempted to negotiate military assistance for guerrilla movements in Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Rhodesia, and the Congo.   Guevara’s Visit to Algeria  Algerian President Ahmed Ben Bella. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Algeria had become a firm friend of the Cuban government following Cuba’s support for Algeria in the immediate aftermath of its independence. As such, Algeria became a base of sorts for Guevara’s escapades across Africa.   In February 1965, Guevara made another speech, this time at the Afro-Asian Conference hosted in the Algerian capital, Algiers, which representatives of 63 nations attended. During his speech, Guevara discussed the common bond between Asia and Africa in their struggles for freedom. Thus, he advocated for greater economic support between emerging socialist nations. He further denounced capitalism as a tool for imperialist economic domination and described the United States as “the imperialist enemy.”   During his time in Algeria, Guevara became well acquainted with Algerian President Ahmed Ben Bella. The two would meet on numerous occasions during Guevara’s one-month stay in the country. Later, on the 30th anniversary of Guevara’s assassination, Ben Bella penned an article for the French newspaper Le Monde Diplomatique. Ben Bella heralded Guevara as a “courageous fighter” and expressed his grief over his death. Guevara’s legacy in Algeria is still visible today, with a prominent boulevard on Algiers seafront being named in his honor.   Guevara in Ghana Kwame Nkrumah, President of Ghana. Source: Africa is a Country   Guevara arrived in Ghana on January 14, 1965, leading a six-member Cuban delegation to meet Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah. Nkrumah was a leading figure in Ghana’s independence movement. He first served as Prime Minister while Ghana was still under British control before becoming elected as the nation’s first President in 1960. Nkrumah was a firm socialist and nationalist and became a prominent figure in Africa’s struggle against colonialism. Thus, he showed potential to become a key ally of the Cuban government.   During his time in Ghana, Guevara visited numerous development projects, such as the Tema Harbor and the Akosombo Dam. He also met with journalists and students and made several public addresses. Guevara was incredibly complimentary of Ghana’s development under Nkrumah. On at least two occasions, Nkrumah and Guevara held talks over potential cooperation between Ghana and Cuba, with Nkrumah also hosting a state dinner in Guevara’s honor.   However, the potential for Cuban-Ghanaian cooperation was abruptly severed when, just a year after Guevara’s visit, Nkrumah was overthrown by a military coup d’état reportedly supported by the CIA. The new Ghanaian regime swiftly aligned itself with the United States and the Western Bloc.   Castro and Guevara Views Diverge Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. Source: ARSOF History   In the shadow of the ongoing Sino-Soviet Split, as relations between the two communist giants—the Soviet Union and China—deteriorated, the relationship between Guevara and Fidel Castro seemed to falter. Castro aligned closely with the Soviet Union. However, Guevara was critical of the Soviet Union’s foreign and economic policies. He also desired Cuba to be a catalyst and supporter for further socialist revolutions across Africa and Latin America.   Furthermore, disagreements over domestic Cuban politics strained Guevara’s commitment to Castro’s choice of political direction. As Minister of Industry and President of the National Bank, Guevara had played an important role in shaping the Cuban economy. Guevara’s economic policies were centered on rapid industrialization and centralization.   However, Guevara’s policies were proving ineffective and were being met with increasing criticism from within Cuba. Castro pivoted and attempted to slow down Cuba’s effort to industrialize. Instead, Castro preferred to focus on improving Cuba’s agricultural production, especially increasing the country’s sugar output. In numerous interviews, Guevara became increasingly critical of Cuba’s new economic policies and of Cuba’s leadership itself.   After his return to Cuba from his trip to Africa, Guevara fell out of public view for some time. His notable absence became the subject of much speculation. In November 1965, Castro publicly released a letter that Guevara had sent him in April. In the letter, Guevara solemnly resigned from all his positions within the Cuban government and even surrendered his Cuban citizenship.   A Rebellion in the Congo Che Guevara in the Congo, 1965. Source: Jacobin   The same month Guevara resigned from his positions in Cuba, he secretly entered the Democratic Republic of the Congo, leading a contingent of 100 Afro-Cuban fighters.   Guevara had pledged himself to support the ongoing Simba Rebellion. Following the death of Patrice Lumumba, his loyal supporters entered into an armed rebellion against the Congolese government beginning in 1964. The rebels, who became known as the Simbas (the Swahili word for lion), received support from both the Soviet Union and China. Despite his Algerian friend Ben Bella warning him against it, Guevara decided to enter the Congo to support the Simbas personally.   Ernesto “Che” Guevara photographed in 1960. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Upon his arrival, Guevara set upon the task of training the Simbas in his guerrilla tactics. However, he quickly encountered several obstacles that would soon derail his mission. Firstly, though Guevara’s motivation to enter the Congo was to fight against imperialist forces, Guevara was still spurred by his socialist ideology. However, the Simba rebels were not nearly as interested in political ideologies or inspired by Marxist ideals.   As a result, divisions and disagreements between Guevara and the Simba quickly emerged. This lack of cohesion was compounded by Guevara’s lack of understanding of the Simba’s spiritual values. Coming from tribal backgrounds, the Simbas were highly superstitious and revered witchcraft, which led to mutual distrust between the Simbas and the Cubans. Furthermore, the Cuban forces were ill-prepared for the harsh Congolese terrain, and many soon confessed their disillusionment with their mission.   Just seven months after arriving in the Congo, Guevara and his Cuban forces withdrew from the country on November 20, 1965. Guevara’s mission in the Congo was a devastating failure.   Evaluating Che Guevara’s African Legacy Che Guevara’s memorial in Cuba. Source: Journey Latin America   Two years after leaving the Congo, Guevara was executed by Bolivian forces while supporting an insurgency movement in the country. Guevara’s fate echoes many emerging radical leaders of the developing world during the Cold War.   Guevara’s travels in Africa represent a period of wider cooperation between the developing world. Despite the threat of the Cold War, emerging progressive states from Latin America, Africa, and Asia attempted to establish crucial ties of cooperation. Since the collapse of many socialist states, these examples of international cooperation have been limited.   Guevara became well acquainted with numerous prominent leaders in Africa. However, many met abrupt ends. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana was overthrown in a coup in 1966, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria was similarly deposed in 1965. As a result, much of Guevara’s efforts to foster relations in Africa ultimately yielded little progress. Guevara’s attempts to spread revolution in the Congo also failed. It is indicative of the difficulty in spreading revolution, especially to places with vastly different cultures and societal norms.   While Che Guevara’s exploits in Africa failed, it is telling of his commitment to his principles. Though Guevara remains a polarizing figure for many, his devotion to his cause cannot be questioned. It is for this reason that Che Guevara’s legacy endures and why he remains the recognized face of revolution.

  From 1939 to 1945, Europe was embroiled in a conflict that cost, by some estimates, as many as 80 million lives. It left the continent in ruins and introduced a trauma that is still with us today.   In May 1945, the Soviets rolled over Berlin. Hitler shot himself, and the Germans surrendered, bringing an end to the deadliest war in human history. Another threat, however, lurked on the horizon. As the industrial might of the United States and the Soviet Union reached unprecedented heights, even before the end of the war, it became clear that a new, even deadlier conflict was possible.   Thus, the Joint Planning Staff Committee was ordered to research military operations that would start a new war as a preemptive action to limit the Soviet Union’s power and westward advance.   This was known as Operation Unthinkable.   The End of the Second World War Map showing the expansion of Soviet influence as a result of Soviet offensives by the end of the Second World War. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At the end of the First World War, Russia, and, by extent, the Soviet Union, was in complete shambles. Communist revolution had ousted the Tsar, and the country was in the grip of a bloody civil war.   Less than three decades later, it emerged from the fires of the Second World War as a superpower with an incredibly large military capability. It occupied the territories of its former enemies as well as the countries liberated from German control.   The whole of Eastern Europe fell under the influence of Moscow. Winston Churchill was well aware that Stalin would keep hold of these territories and set up communist puppet governments, effectively making the Soviet Union even more powerful.   The Fate of Eastern Europe Winston Churchill campaigning for elections in 1945. Source: Public domain via picryl.com   Concerned for the future of Europe, Churchill had plans to “impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire,” even if it meant sparking a third world war. It was a brazen plan, to be sure, but it was one born out of desperation and fear of what the Soviet Union could achieve.   The Allies, seeing the incredible achievements of the Soviet Union in the final months of the war, acknowledged that underestimating Stalin and his forces was foolhardy. It was widely believed that Stalin would not stop at Berlin and that after defeating Germany, he would order Soviet forces to continue westwards.   At the forefront of Churchill’s mind was the fate of Poland. He was extremely unhappy with Poland falling under Soviet control, and his plans focused on liberating the country in a surprise attack. He commanded the plan to be drawn up in complete secrecy. In doing so, he wished to understand the feasibility of using force to stop the Soviet Union’s encroachment on the rest of Europe.   Churchill’s Fears The last remaining German defense on May 7, 1945. Source: National Air and Space Museum, Washington DC   As the war drew to a close with major Soviet advances, Churchill received reports that led him to conclude that many matters had to be settled with the Soviets to prevent a third world war.   Churchill was further alarmed by the decision to allow the Soviets to take Berlin. He viewed the massive buildup of millions of troops there as a potential threat, believing that the Soviets may not stop their advance and keep driving into the western half of Germany and possibly beyond.   He sent a telegram to Roosevelt informing the American president of his concerns, but Roosevelt was not interested in Churchill’s fears. Roosevelt thought that at this stage, the war against Japan would drag on into 1946, and he was hoping Stalin would declare war on the Empire of Japan and help defeat America’s enemy in the East.   He flatly refused to entertain Churchill’s notions and told the British prime minister that while they may be allies, the United States would never help Britain “hold on to its archaic, medieval empire.”   Roosevelt and Churchill. Source: National Museum of the US Navy, Washington DC   In April, Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. As Churchill discovered, Truman took a harder line with Stalin, and the British prime minister was delighted that the United States commander-in-chief now shared a similar vision. Truman’s stance, however, would be reined in by the State Department, which thought it better to avoid stoking the fires of conflict with the Soviet Union at this point.   As the war came to a close, there were fears on the front lines as well. In the north of Germany, the Allies received unconfirmed reports of Soviet paratrooper landings in Denmark. Naturally, these reports were relayed back to Churchill.   Soviets raising the Soviet flag of the Reichstag on May 2, 1945. Source: Public domain via Anne Frank House, Amsterdam   In addition, Churchill was, at this point, receiving many reports of widespread rape and destruction caused by Soviet troops in Berlin as well as in other territories occupied by the Soviets.   Another factor influencing Churchill to investigate further action was the stripping of factories in Germany and Eastern Europe of parts that were taken back to the Soviet Union. These actions were especially widespread in Poland, and it proved to Churchill that Stalin was not upholding his end of the deal struck in Yalta earlier that year.   It became plainly obvious that Stalin had no intention of allowing Poland to return to democracy, as the Western Allies had wished.   Military Considerations Winston Churchill firing a Thompson submachine gun. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It was clear that if the plan went ahead, the Western Allies would be outnumbered in virtually all military areas. By June 1, it was estimated that the Allies would have only 80 infantry divisions to oppose the Soviet’s 228. In terms of armored divisions, the Allies had 20 and the Soviet’s 36.   The Allies would also be outnumbered in the air. The Soviets had an estimated 13,000 aircraft of all types, while the Allies had just under 9,000.   In addition to these numbers, it was clear that while the Soviets had lost millions of troops in the first stages of the war, by the end of the war, they had achieved parity with the German capabilities. The Soviet army had gone from strength to strength and was highly motivated, well-trained, and extremely effective.   Required Circumstances Stalin at the Yalta Conference in 1945. Source: Public domain, National Archives via Wikimedia Commons   Of course, launching a war directly after the end of the most devastating war in history was not an issue that was approached with any degree of nonchalance. The Joint Chiefs of Staff drew up a list of circumstances that had to be met before any casus belli could be declared.   It was assumed that since the Soviet Union had not declared war on Japan yet, Stalin would ally the Soviet Union with Japan instead. The likelihood of this was a real consideration that the Joint Chiefs of Staff had to consider, and thus, it became a prerequisite for opening Western Allied hostilities against the Soviet Union.   It was also necessary to ensure the reliability of the alliances. The United Kingdom and the United States were expected to provide the bulk of the fighting force, which would be augmented by Canadian and German divisions. It was also necessary to attain assurances from the Poles that they would rise up against the Soviets.   Military considerations aside, it was also necessary to gain the full support of the British and American public. This requirement was highly unlikely to be met. Although aware of the danger the Soviets posed, it is unlikely that the majority of the populations would have supported a continuation of hostilities, especially in the United Kingdom, where the war had taken a terrible toll.   The Proposed Attack Proposed two-pronged attack into Poland. Source: Created by Greg Beyer using Google Earth and Paint3D   Operation Unthinkable laid out two routes of attack. It is unknown exactly what these plans entailed, as the maps that were drawn up were either destroyed or never released to the public. It is salient to point out that the conception of Operation Unthinkable itself was only made public knowledge in 1998.   The first route would require an armored thrust in the north towards the Baltic States. The second route would move southwest of Berlin towards Wrocław. It was clear that if this latter attack moved too far eastwards, the flanks would be exposed to attack from Soviet troops stationed in and around Czechoslovakia.   The plan had to be implemented with lightning speed and an element of surprise. The idea was that the quick punch to liberate Poland would shock Stalin and force him to the negotiation table.   Report Conclusions The report on Operation Unthinkable. Source: National Archives UK   Fortunately, the report that Churchill received about the possibility of achieving success made it very clear that an attack on Soviet forces would have disastrous consequences.   A quick victory, however unlikely, would still be possible, but if its effects were to have any lasting power, Russia (as the report refers to the Soviet Union throughout) would have to be completely defeated. Thus, a total war would be necessary to ensure Poland stayed out of Soviet control.   The report states,   “Even if all goes according to plan, we shall not have achieved, from the military point of view, a lasting result. The military power of Russia will not be broken and it will be open to her to recommence the conflict at any time she sees fit.”   It was also concluded that if war with the Soviet Union broke out, it would be impossible to limit it to a single theater, and it would, in all likelihood, end up being a global conflict.   Soviet flag. Source: goodfon.com   It is impossible to accurately imagine what might have happened had Operation Unthinkable come to fruition. It was hoped that a quick operation would force the Soviets out of Poland and that the Soviets would accept the outcome and agree to peace terms. This was an extremely risky gamble.   It was very likely that this would not occur, that the Western Allies and the Soviets would end up engaged in a protracted war and that if the Soviets achieved victory, they would extend their control even further into Western Europe.   Fortunately for everyone, Operation Unthinkable was shelved.

For followers of Christ, there’s always work to do. And not a lot of time to do it.

Christian Braun is an instant legend for this

The satisfaction of eating food you grew on your own, in your own garden, is indescribable. There’s something basic and rewarding about producing your own produce – you know exactly where it came from, how it was grown, and what fertilizers and which pesticides were used. Plus they taste pretty damn good too. One way to make them taste even better? Rotation crop farming. Rotation Crop Farming: A Healthier and Smarter Garden Needless to say, home gardens are really cool: they are useful; they are economical; they are healthy for the earth and for you, the owner. But cultivating a productive garden isn’t as easy as throwing out some seeds, sitting back, cracking a beer and watching your bounty grow, hose in hand. If only it were. Agriculture is one of mankind’s oldest forms of science, and over the millennia we’ve developed a lot of tricks, tips, and methods for perfecting the art of farming successfully. The study is immense. One of the most effective tricks for improving your garden’s health and crop yield, is known as “crop rotation farming”. Crop rotation farming is, in a nutshell, the systematic approach to picking which crop to plant where, and how to cycle each from one year to the next. Before you get intimidated by that description, just hear me out: this form of farming is a lot easier than it may at first sound – it does require marginally more effort on your part, but the payoff is well-worth it. Crop rotation is not a new trick. It is not a trendy hipster secret or some kind of sexy life-hack. This is an ancient, tried and field-tested method for maintaining quality soil, healthy plants, and high crop yields. It goes back as far as Mesopotamian farmers, who employed basic crop rotation tactics over 8000 years ago! Anything that has been around for that long has to be pretty effective! Why Crop Rotation is SO Beneficial Well, actually I’m going to start by explaining why monocrop (or monoculture) farming is so bad. Monocrop farming is exactly what it sounds like – farming the same crop in the same field season after season without change. It's basically the exact opposite of crop rotation farming. Monocrop farming is bad for two main reasons: First and foremost, it's unhealthy for the soil. It doesn’t allow the soil any time to recover and offers no variation in nutrients – meaning that fertile farming soil dries out and essentially dies. And when your soil goes bad, your crops die, and when there’s no crops to hold down the soil, you get the Dust Bowl of the 1930’s. And nobody wants another Dust Bowl. The second reason is most easily explained by the old adage, “Never put all of your eggs in one basket.” If a particular type of parasite or disease breaks out and all of your crops are the same, you are vulnerable to losing all of your produce in a single fell blow, with nothing to fall back on. Think of Ireland’s Great Potato Famine… Conversely, crop rotation farming diversifies the soil nutrients, making a rich and highly fertile blend. This makes it easy to grow plants, which prevents soil erosion, and makes produce grow plentifully. It’s a win-win-win situation – the environment is happy, you're happy, and your crops are happy (until they’re eaten, that is). It also helps reduce problems with soil dwelling insects and soil borne diseases. The How To | You don’t need a degree in agricultural sciences to perfect the art of rotation crop farming – you just need to put in a little extra work (which pays off big in the end). You don’t even need that big of a garden, either. Size matters little when it comes to rotation crop farming – whether you have tens of acres of land you want to utilize solely for agriculture, you’re garden is just a small corner of your backyard, or even if you just have a handful of ceramic pots – rotation crop farming works on all scales. It is best to have separate beds for separate families of produce, but you don’t need to. You can just divide one bed into several crop areas and rotate them thusly. The only downside to this is that, if you do get a soil borne disease or parasite, it will spread much more easily from crop to crop. Familiarize yourself with the different families of produce. This is how you will group your rotation batches. Here is a general list of families to plant by: Nightshades (Solanaceous): Tomatillos, tomatoes, eggplants, okra, peppers, potatoes Squash, Melons,  and Cucumbers (cucurbits): Musk melon, cucumbers, summer squash & zucchini, watermelon, gourd, pumpkin Morning Glory: Sweet Potato Goosefoot (Amaranthaceae): Spinach, quinoa, beet, orach, chard, Sunflower (Asteraceae): Jerusalem artichoke, sunflower, lettuce, artichoke, endive Cole (Brassicas): Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, cabbage, radishes, collards, kohlrabi, turnip, rutabaga,  mustard Onions: Onions, chives, leeks, garlic Peas (legumes): Runner beans, garbanzo beans, peas,  fava beans, bush beans, peanuts Grasses: Millet, corn, rice, wheat, barley, rye Parsley: Carrots, parsley, parsnips, celery, cilantro/coriander, fennel You can have as many different families in rotation as you want, but generally, you need at least two to flip-flop crops. Then, after each season, when the crops have yielded their bounty, rotate all of your crop families to a new bed when you’re ready to replant. Rotation crop farming is like musical chairs for a garden! It is also highly encouraged to keep a bed/field “fallow” each season. That is to say, leave one bed/field unplanted so that the soil can truly rest and recuperate. If your land is large enough, many farmers keep livestock (like chickens and sheep) on their fallow field, because the animals aerate and fertilize the soil even more, so that when you do plant there next season, the soil is extra fertile and super healthy. If you don’t have livestock, you can plant a “cover crop” on the otherwise fallow field/bed – like alfalfa, white Dutch clover, or rye – to add fertility and improve drainage. That way you still get some use out of an otherwise empty bed. Do It the Right Way | If you’re planning on starting a garden, or already have one and want to improve upon it, crop rotation is the most effective method for doing so. There are no drawbacks to it – only positive effects and benefits for you and your environment. This video posted by GrowVeg makes crop rotation simple: As I mentioned, there’s something truly, genuinely good about growing your own food. But it isn’t always easy, and there are a lot of tricks and methods for it that can sometimes get confusing. That doesn’t mean they are unachievable though! So whether you are growing produce in a tiny greenhouse, in your backyard, or on a decent sized farm, you might as well do it the right way – with crop rotation. You will be surely glad you did. Do you have any more ideas about crop rotation? Let us know in the comments below. Looking for more gardening ideas? Check out these 5 easy gardening tips that'll have you grow plants like a pro Follow us on Instagram, twitter, pinterest, and facebook!

Two glass onion bottles that survived 300 years under the waters of Florida’s Atlantic coast have been successfully liberated from marine encrustations and returned to shininess. Conservators at the Florida Division of Historical Resources Bureau of Archaeological Research’s Conservation Lab were able to salvage these rare surviving examples of 17th century glass by cleaning them of thick concretion layers and consolidating the fragile surface. The bottles were recovered from the wreck site off the coast of Indian River County in 2021 and 2022. The specific ship could not been identified, but it was part of the 1715 Spanish Plate Fleet, the convoy of gold, silver, gemstones, tobacco, chocolate, spices and indigo transported from the New World colonies to Spain. Eleven ships from that fleet were destroyed by a hurricane off the coast of Florida. Onion bottles were made using the free-blown technique: molten glass inflated by the glassblower through a blowpipe rather than made with a mold. Every piece produced with this technique is unique in shape, size, thickness and weight. They were used in trade for their contents as well as utilitarian objects. On the ship, these bottles likely held an alcoholic beverage drunk by the crew and passengers. This type of bottle is fragile and rarely survives intact. They were usually broken in the wreck of the ship, and if they did somehow manage to reach the seabed in one piece, they would be constantly subjected to rough treatment by tidal forces. As they were buffeted about, they also crusted up with sand, shells and other assorted marine creatures. Over time, the concretions and constant exposure to sea water would cause the glass surface to delaminate (ie, thin shards of glass flaking off). It took conservators seven months of painstaking work to clean and stabilize the fragile vessels. With meticulously slow cleaning and drying, the bottles remained intact and were then consolidated with Paraloid B-72, an acrylic resin based consolidant typically used in glass and ceramic conservation. Several coats of this stabilized the remaining glass flakes that were flying off and gave the bottles that shiny appearance you can see in the after-treatment photos. The newly-restored onion bottles are now available for exhibition at local museums through the Florida Division of Historical Resources’ Artifact Loan Program.

On October 26, J.D. Vance, the Republican vice-presidential candidate, marked a distance with Israel on the escalating situation in the Middle East. On the Tim Dillon Show, he acknowledged Israel’s…

In her closing spiel at the Ellipse on Tuesday night, Vice President Kamala Harris was flanked by giant banners with the word FREEDOM. Harris returned to her Democratic National Convention theme,…