by Harley Schlanger, LaRouche Organization: In the midst of a tight presidential election campaign in the United States, events unfolding at the United Nations General Assembly ought to be ringing alarm bells among Americans accustomed to seeing their nation as the “first among equals”, as the “Sole Superpower” able to dictate policy to the rest […]

  Even after the Civil War, the American West still represented a substantial-sized territory. The bulk of the U.S. Army occupied former Confederate states, leaving only a small force out West. Some tribes used the War’s distraction to launch raids against settlers, forts, and wagon trains. With the creation of the Indian Scout companies, a group now existed that knew the terrain, the culture, and the languages of the tribes. Such a group proved necessary given their tough, resourceful opponents.   The Motivation Warm Spring Indian Scouts in camp, circa 1870s. Source: NY Public Library Collection   An important question is why Native Americans served with their primary opponents. The clashes between the Army and the tribes were often violent or bloody. Innocents on both sides perished.   Like anyone, Scouts needed to make money. Scouts received the same wages as active-duty Army soldiers at $13 a month. Their service may have been their first time dealing with whites, seeing how they lived or conducted business. Revenge against enemy tribes and keep their warrior traditions alive. As more tribes got placed on reservations, the U.S. government encouraged pastoral traditions like farming or ranching. Some Native Americans, like Quanah Parker, adapted very successfully.    Clashes, forts, and tribes. Source: U.S. Army Historical Studies   Scouts didn’t always fight-they traveled to militant bands, seeking to convince them not to fight. Though not always successful, some tribes listened and moved to a reservation, avoiding bloodshed. Also, the guides proved helpful with their usually unmatched knowledge of the terrain. The Army, desperately short on experts, needed people with the right skills. The fact that the Army showed willingness to pay a soldier’s salary said it all.   The Challenges Apache Indian Scouts. Source: Prologue Magazine   The Scouts faced hardships while performing an already difficult job. Violence and conflict could be expected, helping the U.S. Army track, fight, and negotiate with various tribes. Often, the Army used tribal rivalries to play off tribes against each other. This played to the Army’s advantage.   The Scouts often dealt with prejudice or hostility from Americans. Seen as savages or “redskins”, sometimes their employers deemed them inferior. Such treatment also came from American society, not just the military. By their very culture, the Scouts needed to surmount language or cultural differences and vice versa.   Another factor that drove Army officers mad was discipline. By their nature, the Scouts fought bravely but as individuals, not as a unit. They used the Native hit-and-run tactics, which worked but went against the grain. Formations needed discipline and formation to fight as a unit. Only in the 1890s, with wholly Native cavalry troops, was this enforced.   Roles and Major Events Custer’s Last Stand. Source: Library of Congress   The Indian Scouts served between 1866 and ended in the early 1920s. Many enlisted for a campaign’s duration or a three-month term. The usual Indian Scouts unit contained fifty Scouts, led by a cavalry officer and a civilian interpreter. Besides fighting, Scouts located good campsites or carried messages. Indian Scouts participated in many of the battles from the 1860s, including the Battle of Little Big Horn, the 1880s Apache Wars, and the 1916 Mexico Expedition.   During the 1876 Battle of Little Bighorn, perhaps five or more Scouts with Custer died in battle. But, a Scout Force numbering only 250 Crow and Shoshone warriors fought off 1,300 Lakota. This saved the remnant of the 7th Cavalry, who dug quick defenses. During the Apache Wars, notably famous for legendary Geronimo, the Scouts provided intelligence and defense against the guerilla tactics the Apache used. The U.S. Army had little knowledge of these tactics.   Famous Scouts Portrait of Ashishishe, or Curley, the American Indian Scout who famously assisted General Custer while still a teenager. Source: Heritage Auctions   In 1866, Congress allocated the U.S. Army 1,000 Indian Scouts annually. Like any unit, some individuals stood out. By their end, the Scouts won sixteen Medals of Honor for bravery or outstanding actions. Among the famous Scouts are Ashishishe or Curley. This Crow Scout served with George Custer, participating in the Little Bighorn until Custer’s Last Stand. Ordered away, he didn’t fight but witnessed the defeat of Custer’s command. Ashishishe is considered the only survivor of the battle.   Sergeant John Ward, a Black Seminole, won the Medal of Honor in 1875. He enlisted in Texas, serving in the 9th Infantry. While on patrol along the Pecos River on April 25, 1875, his group fought with twenty-five Natives. Sergeant Ward and two others charged their opponents, spoiling their attack.    The U.S. Army Indian Scouts fought fiercely alongside comrades seen as tribal enemies, and they served well. Despite alienation or racism, the Scouts persisted well past the time of the Old West.

  From the 8th century CE to the turn of the 16th century, a swath of the Iberian Peninsula was under Islamic control. The legacy of Moorish Spain can be felt in everything from science to agriculture, language, art and architecture. Preserved in Andalusia today, are many elaborate palaces, bold fortresses, and former mosques with minarets that are now bell towers. Communicating a greater truth through intricate geometry, these monuments are rich with tessellated tile patterns, woodcarving, calligraphy, and elaborate plasterwork.   1. Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba. Source: UNESCO   Upstream from Seville on the Guadalquivir River, Córdoba became a provincial capital in the early 8th century. By the 10th century, Córdoba was a cultural and economic beacon, rivaling Constantinople or Damascus. At that time the city teemed with scholars and polymaths and had as many as 300 mosques and 100,000 shops and residences.   Testifying to that status is a mosque-turned-cathedral, begun in the 780s. Held as the single greatest piece of Islamic heritage in Spain, this extraordinary monument was enlarged in five clear phases before it was Christianized during the Reconquista in the 12th century.   The Great Mosque of Córdoba was once second only in size to the Holy Mosque in Mecca, and from its beginning, it informed Western Islamic architecture. For instance, this building has the first recorded use of double arches, as well as a novel combination of brick and stone, both of which stand out in the magnificent 10th-century prayer hall.   The double arches in the prayer hall are an example of ingenuity, in response to the height of the columns. As was common in Moorish architecture, the columns are reused Roman elements removed from sites in the area. There are more than 1,200 in the building, carved from a variety of materials including marble, onyx and jasper.   Very little changed in the centuries after the mosque became a cathedral, and it wasn’t until the 1500s that the Renaissance nave and transept were added. Before that came the stunning Royal Chapel, designed in the Mudéjar style — Islamic-inspired art produced for Christian patrons.   What is now the bell tower is a former minaret. In this instance the 10th-century Islamic origins of this structure are hidden beneath Renaissance reconstruction work following earthquake damage in the 16th century.   2. Madinat al-Zahra Medina Azahara. Source: Turismo de Córdoba   In 929 CE, after consolidating regional power, the Emir of Córdoba, Abd al-Rahman III (890-961) declared himself Caliph of Córdoba. This made him the leader of all muslims in al-Andalus, and protector of Jews and Christians. The title asserted a continuity between himself and his ancestors, the Umayyad Caliphs. Originating in Arabia, the Umayyad Caliphate drove the early spread of Islam including the conquest of much of Iberia.   Abd al-Rahman III is remembered as a champion of the arts, who oversaw Córdoba’s apogee as a European center for thought and culture. All he needed was a palace suitable for his new elevated title, which he duly built on the course of a Roman aqueduct, three miles out of Córdoba.   Madinat al-Zahra, meaning the “Radiant City,” had a short lifespan. It was sacked and abandoned in 1010, just seventy years after construction began. First excavated in the early 20th century, the site survives as an unadulterated document for the artistry and splendor of al-Andalus in the Early Medieval Period.   The complex, only a small fraction of which has been uncovered, is made up of grand reception halls, offices, baths, workshops, a mint, a great mosque, barracks, and aristocratic residences.   A centerpiece is the reception hall, the Salón Rico, which has survived almost intact. Supported by reused ancient columns are arches with alternating bands of color, while the walls have highly detailed vegetal arabesques. These are carved on limestone panels and have a repeating Tree of Life motif. On the back wall, a blind arch marks the site where the Caliph would have sat.   3. The Giralda La Giralda. Source: Andalusia Tourist Community   Under the Almohads in the 12th century, the capital of Al-Andalus switched from Córdoba to Seville. During this period a new Great Mosque was built in the city, on a similar scale to Córdoba. It was accompanied by a towering minaret completed in 1198 using a lot of spolia, including material salvaged from previous Umayyad architecture.   The completed structure stood more than 300 feet tall, with ramps winding to the top, instead of steps. These were wide and had enough vertical space to accommodate beasts of burden.   The facade on the middle section of the tower retains its 12th-century Islamic decoration. This includes the sebka, comprising a dense matrix of interlacing blind arches surrounding the windows, which have multilobed and horseshoe arches.   The Reconquest of Spain reached Seville in the mid-13th century and the city experienced an enormous influx of wealth. This continued through the Age of Exploration—Christopher Colombus is interred in the cathedral—and into the Early Modern Period when Seville was designated the sole Iberian trading port with Latin America.   The Christianized former mosque, poorly maintained and damaged by earthquakes, was replaced in the 15th century by a late Gothic cathedral on a vast scale. With five naves, Seville Cathedral is the largest Gothic church in the world.   After its conversion from minaret to belfry the Giralda was capped with a mid-16th century Renaissance extension to house the bells. Crowning the building at more than 340 feet is the theatrical Giraldillo weather vane, weighing more than 3,300 lbs. The tower soars above the Patio de los Naranjos, a sahn (courtyard) surviving from the Islamic period.   4. Alhambra  The Court of the Lions. Source: Alhambra y Generalife   Even more significant than the Giralda, this monumental palace and garden complex has been continuously occupied since it was developed in the 13th century. The consequence is an astonishing state of preservation at what is considered the high point of Western Islamic architecture.   The Alhambra was initially built in the mid-13th century on high ground above the rest of Granada for the first Nasrid emir, Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar (1195-1273). Following the Reconquista, the complex immediately became the court of the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella. In fact it was at the Alhambra that Christopher Columbus received permission for his first voyage in 1492.   For Moorish finery, the priorities are the Nasrid-era Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions, built at the start and end of the 14th century respectively. At every turn, visitors are confronted with exceptional artistry, including the kind of hypnotic zellij tilework that captivated M.C. Escher, and the muqarnas, intricate stucco dome decorations comprising hundreds of little cells.   Dawn at the Alhambra palace, photo by Jebulon. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Touring the Comares Palace, highlights include the Court of the Myrtles with its daintily carved porticoes or the famed Hall of the Ambassadors. These seven chambers abound with painstakingly realized mosaic tiles, stucco, and Quranic inscriptions, beneath a domed wooden ceiling comprising highly detailed latticework. The level of skill and imagination rises at the Palace of the Lions, renowned for its absurdly detailed muqarnas vaults in the Sala de los Abencerrajes and the Sala de los Reyes.   There is an intoxicating sense of cultural cross-pollination in the ceiling paintings depicting Nasrid rulers and court scenes. Given how rare pictorial painting is in Islamic art, these were likely painted by Christian artists.   Elsewhere, on the Alhmabra’s northern wall, the Torre de la Cautiva (Tower of the Captive Woman) is a small palatial residence. Inside, the lower walls are adorned with mesmeric zellij tiles, with highly sophisticated geometric patterns, beneath a strip with Arabic inscriptions from the Quran.   5. Alcazaba of Málaga View of the Alcazaba from the Plaza de la Merced. Source: Alcazaba y Castillo de Gibralfaro   Pitching steeply into Málaga’s natural harbor, Gibralfaro is a hill that has been fortified since the Phoenicians founded a colony here more than 2,700 years ago. The city’s importance grew as the Umayyad Caliphate collapsed, ushering in the Taifas, a patchwork of independent kingdoms and principalities. In the 11th century Málaga became the seat of the short-lived Hammudid Dynasty.   Later, in the 13th century, the city became an essential port for the Nasrid Emirate of Granada, and was visited by the famed traveler and chronicler Ibn Battuta in the 13th century. He described Málaga as one of “the largest and most beautiful towns of Andalusia.”   Surveying the city from its perch was the Alcazaba of Málaga, an immense fortified palace complex protected by two layers of walls. Indeed, the scale was extraordinary, at more than 320,000 square feet, although the present Alcazaba is around half of that.   As with other landmarks in this article, the structure was seminal, informing military architecture for the Taifa Period. Much of the Alcazaba dates to this time, with formidable crenelated walls safeguarding an inner enclosure of gardens and pavilions on the summit. The beefed-up defenses illustrate the instability of the era and culminate with the Torre del Homenaje (Tower of Tribute) on the east side.   There are two distinct palaces within the walls. The southernmost, with its arcaded pavilions, is from the Taifa Period in the 11th century, and takes inspiration from Madinat al-Zahra. Particularly celebrated are the vegetal carvings on the horseshoe arches giving way to the main hall.   Adjoining the Taifa palace is the later Nasrid palace from the 13th century. The priority here is the pair of courtyards, with basins framed by lozenge tilework that is all original.   6. Alcazaba of Almería The Alcazaba Fortress. Source: Turismo de Almería   In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman III, a familiar name at this point, ordered the construction of this citadel posted on the ridge high above the water in Almería.   Artistry takes a back seat at Alcazaba of Almería, which impresses for its commanding location and magnitude. Over several phases, it became the second-largest fortified complex from Spain’s Islamic period. Almería flourished as a port city under the Nasrid dynasty, and by the 16th century, the Alcazaba comprised three enclosures connected to the city walls.   Looking over the city at the south end is the Torre de los Espejos (Tower of Mirrors), the modern entrance to the Alcazaba, thought to have been used for communication in Medieval times. From here there’s an all-encompassing view of the city, sea, and mountains.   Behind is the first enclosure, which once consisted of a military camp, cemetery, and place of refuge for the populace during sieges. This enclosure was largely destroyed in an earthquake in the 16th century, one of many to hit the site. Today the space has been landscaped with Moorish-style gardens.   The archeological interest lies in the second-enclosure to the northwest. This served as the residence for rulers, accompanied by mosques, shops, baths and humbler homes. One element that has survived the earthquakes is the set of cisterns, replenished by wells descending deep into the ridge. Close by are baths in the Roman style, a reconstructed home, and a former mosque which was turned into a chapel under Ferdinand and Isabella in the late-15th century.

  Supporters of both major political parties often grumble about the controversial role of money in politics, usually alleging corruption due to candidates being “owned” by donors. Was it always this way? Have any laws been passed to try to limit corruption in the form of candidates being improperly influenced by donors? From the era of machine politics to today’s super PACs, it is undeniable that wealthy donors hold lots of influence over politicians. How did this scenario come to be? Can anything be done to level the playing field? From the Gilded Age to today, here is a look at the vital role of money in US elections.   Pre-Civil War Campaign Finance An 1824 campaign poster for Democratic presidential candidate Andrew Jackson, who is considered the first active presidential campaigner. Source: Library of Congress   Campaign finance was not a major issue prior to the American Civil War (1861-65) because few candidates above the local level actively campaigned for office. For the first few decades of the United States, most candidates were self-funded and were more prone to giving voters gifts—perhaps in the form of alcohol—than receiving them. Thus, political corruption was still present in the early 1800s, but not usually in the form of candidates being “bought” by donors. This began to change in the 1820s with populist candidate Andrew Jackson, who was one of the first presidential candidates to actually campaign.   Jackson publicly sought the vote and organized a campaign, which was a new practice. Previous presidential candidates humbly accepted the party’s nomination shortly before the general election and did little networking with common voters. While Jackson did not solicit donations per se, his populist movement made politics a national pastime by helping expand suffrage to all white men. The era of Jacksonian Democracy ended property ownership requirements for voting, making politics more accessible for the masses…and opening the floodgates for campaign donations.   Gilded Age and Rise of Political Machines A petition urging congressional action against the corruption of political machines in the United States in 1878. Source: Library of Congress   After the Civil War, the right to vote expanded further—at least on paper—with the Fifteenth Amendment. All men could now vote, regardless of race. In rapidly growing Northern cities, this expanded suffrage to many immigrants and African American men. These new voters were courted by political parties and candidates, who offered government services in exchange for political loyalty. During the Gilded Age (late 1860s-1890s), government services such as police and fire protection, parks, schools, and sanitation were often provided sporadically on the basis of political patronage. This relatively new provision of services meant government contracts for businesses, who could bid (or bribe) for them.   With local governments not well developed at providing services and most citizens living below the middle-class threshold, campaign finance was largely left to wealthy capitalists who dominated urban employment. Politicians would make deals with these capitalists and industrialists to fund their campaigns, guarantee their employees’ political support in exchange for government contracts, and disregard any lawbreaking. Some modern historians argue that the Gilded Age was not the cesspool of corruption we imagine and that this portrayal was largely due to biased historians from the Progressive Era.   1890s: Barnstorming and Increase in Campaign Expenses A photograph of Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan in 1896, who created the modern presidential campaign by barnstorming the country. Source: Virginia Humanities   The modern goal of crowdsourcing campaign contributions from supportive voters evolved at the beginning of the Progressive Era with populist candidate-turned-Democratic Party presidential nominee William Jenning Bryan. Similar to Andrew Jackson before him, Bryan campaigned actively and broke the trend of presidential candidates conducting “front porch” campaigns where they networked only with party figures and newspaper editors. Bryan crisscrossed the country giving speeches, which was costly.   Bryan’s opponent, Republican nominee William McKinley, was largely bankrolled by millionaire Republican figure Mark Hanna. By 1896, the press was no longer as accepting of this sort of cozy relationship between a political candidate and a tycoon, and there was lots of negative coverage in newspapers. However, Hanna also served as campaign manager, essentially creating this new position for political campaigns. Although McKinley won the presidential election that autumn and re-election in 1900 with Hanna again serving as campaign manager, the winds were shifting in terms of acceptable campaign finance.   Early 1970s: First Federal Campaign Laws Fred Wertheimer (left), seen here in 1974, advocating for government restrictions on soft money in campaign finance. Source: NPR   After the era of William Jennings Bryan, who lost all four elections as Democratic presidential nominee, it was common for both major party nominees to actively campaign across the country. This was expensive, and candidates were eager for donations. During the 1950s and 1960s, this was mostly supplied by individuals and interest groups rather than corporations. At the time, corporations typically exerted influence in politics by hiring lobbyists to network with members of Congress. Still, by the 1950s, wealthy families were found to have significant political power, thanks to their campaign contributions.   During this era, campaign contributions were “not subtle” and were rarely hidden. Although federal laws had been passed beginning in 1907 to limit corruption through campaign contributions, they had been largely unenforced and were subject to significant loopholes. For example, there were limits on donations to individual candidates and national party committees, but not the parties as a whole. In 1971, the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) was passed to place limits on how much candidates could contribute to their own campaigns and spend on advertising. It also included disclosure requirements that required candidates to report campaign contributions and spending.   1975: Creation of the Federal Election Commission A graphic from the Federal Election Commission (FEC) webpage that explains the prohibition of using campaign funds for personal expenses. Source: Federal Election Commission   To enforce FECA requirements, a new government agency was needed. Thus, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) was created in 1975 to enforce FECA and its many additional amendments passed after the Watergate Scandal. To minimize corruption, FECA was regularly amended even after 1975 to improve quarterly disclosure requirements for campaigns. Many politicians and wealthy donors disliked these requirements and viewed them as infringing on their privacy and freedom of expression.   The validity of the FEC and FECA was quickly challenged in the Supreme Court case Buckley v. Valeo (1976). In its decision, the Court found that campaign contribution limits were constitutional as necessary for a fair representative democracy. However, the Court struck down limits on campaign spending, such as on advertising, as an unconstitutional limitation of the First Amendment. In summary, it was acceptable for the government to limit how a campaign could raise money but not how it could be spent.   2002: Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) US Senators John McCain (right) and Russ Feingold (left) pushed through the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act in 2002 to ban the use of soft money. Source: NPR   While the FEC enforced dollar limits on donating to individual candidates as part of FECA, donors could use the soft money loophole by donating unlimited funds to political parties. The parties would then divert the money to the candidates, allowing the wealthy donors to still have tremendous influence. Soft money was supposed to be used for general voter engagement, such as get-out-the-vote drives, but both parties quickly began using it to support federal candidates (US House of Representatives, US Senate, US President/Vice President). The parties could justify such spending if they praised a candidate but did not directly advertise as part of that candidate’s campaign.   In 1991, the FEC first began requiring soft money disclosures, and it was revealed that considerably more political donations involved soft money to parties than hard money to candidates. Six years later, after the 1996 presidential election, two US senators crafted a bill to try and close this campaign finance loophole. The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002, also known as the McCain-Feingold Act (after the two senators who crafted the bill), banned the use of soft money to support federal candidates. Additionally, money raised by a political party in one state could not be sent to another state, limiting out-of-state influences on candidates.   2010: Citizens United Supreme Court Decision A screenshot explaining the controversial US Supreme Court decision in Citizens United v. FEC (2010), which said political spending was protected speech. Source: C-SPAN   Wealthy political donors were not happy with the BCRA and said it limited their First Amendment right to freedom of expression. They argued that political speech should be protected, similar to individual speech. If it was their money, why could they not use it for political speech the way they could for other forms of expression, such as creating a book, movie, or work of art?   The US Supreme Court agreed in the case Citizens United v. FEC (2010). The Citizens United political action committee (PAC) won the right to spend unlimited amounts on political advertising…as long as it was not directly linked to a specific candidate or political party.   Thus, the Citizens United decision drastically increased the amount of money in political campaigns, though such money was spent indirectly in assistance of a candidate. PACs, corporations, interest groups, and wealthy individuals could run unlimited commercials supporting a political view on an issue. This upset many people, who argued that allowing wealthy groups and corporations to spend such large amounts effectively drowned out the voices of common citizens. Why would politicians need to listen to individual constituents when they could rely on a single super PAC to spend tens of millions in their favor?   Current Players: Super PACs and Alleged Dark Money An image of a bag of money belonging to a super PAC sitting on an American flag, criticizing the role of super PACs’ heavy political spending. Source: University of Connecticut   The rise of super PACs in the aftermath of the Citizens United decision has created a powerful new player in campaign finance. Wealthy individuals who want to help a candidate or party win but avoid negative press for donating large sums can anonymously donate through super PACs using shell companies. This makes it difficult for watchdog organizations and the government to limit political corruption. A victorious candidate may be told in secret who the donor is and reward them directly or indirectly, while the public remains unaware of the source of the donation(s).   An image showing money changing hands in front of the United States Capitol, suggesting corruption. Source: Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility (ICCR)   Because the Citizens United decision allows unlimited corporate political spending, individual donors can allegedly hide behind corporations created expressly for the purpose of political influence. This is part of a controversial trend known as dark money. The FEC reports the group that made the contribution but not necessarily the individuals within the group who put up the funds in the first place. Critics claim that the 2010 Supreme Court decision undermines democracy by preventing voters from knowing whose views and opinions they are hearing.   Current Campaign Finance Limits A chart showing the current dollar limits of various types of campaign contributions to federal candidates (US Representative, US Senator, or US president/vice president). Source: The FEC   Hard money limits still exist, though many claim they are less important today due to super PACs and dark money. Both major political parties and most federal candidates actively seek small-dollar donations from common citizens, which the FEC considers as $200 or less per donor. Many populist candidates can raise large campaign funds from small-dollar donations, though these are usually a minority of their total fundraising. For presidential elections, these small-dollar donations may be the single biggest source of funding but are collectively outweighed by PACs, large donations, and self-funding.   Despite small-dollar donations making up only a minority of campaign finance today, candidates who have lots of individual donors can advertise this fact to show their popular appeal. It is also common for candidates to accuse their opponents of relying on wealthy donors, super PACs, and “outside groups” for assistance, implying either corrupt tendencies or a lack of local popularity. And although plenty of individual voters donate to candidates and parties, only a tiny percentage hit the cap on hard money donations. For example, less than 0.6% of adult women and 0.9% of adult men donate $200 or more to rise above the level of “small-dollar donation” in any election cycle.   Continued Campaign Finance Controversies Protesters in 2015 criticizing the Citizens United decision, which allowed corporations to spend unlimited amounts of money on political speech. Source: The Center for Public Integrity   Campaigning costs money, so there is likely no way to make the playing field perfectly fair. Many individuals enter politics with plenty of amassed wealth, allowing them to self-fund campaigns. Critics of wealthy self-funders, who can spend unlimited amounts of their own money to campaign, argue that this makes it harder for common citizens to run for office. Others, however, argue that self-funders are less likely to be corrupt because they do not have to rely on donations from potentially unscrupulous donors. Overall, those who run for political office and win are statistically far wealthier than the general population.   Another continued controversy is the reliance on super PACs across the political spectrum despite individual candidates decrying their use. Basically, all candidates like to praise small-dollar donations, but these can be unreliable during periods of economic instability. Instead, both conservative and liberal candidates tend to benefit from super PACs that operate independently of them, allowing them to criticize super PACs in general while still receiving support from specific ones. Critics label this as blatant hypocrisy: candidates criticize dark money and super PACs as hurting the political process but rarely directly address the ones that advertise in their favor!

  The world is moving forward in almost all walks of life. While this is happening, it would be interesting to learn about the history that shaped our planet today. What could be more enriching than visiting historical sites and landmarks yourself, experiencing firsthand the secrets and stories of our shared human heritage? The places we list below are portals to what life used to be like several decades, even centuries ago. We picked up historic spots from all around the globe that deserve a place on every history buff’s bucket list.   1. Meteora, Greece Monastery of the Holy Trinity, Meteora, Greece. Source: Flickr   This is by far one of the most striking and unique religious sites in the world. Located in central Greece, this historic gem is famous for its monasteries perched atop towering rock formations. Given the seemingly inaccessible locations of these ancient monasteries, the site was given the name “Meteora,” which actually means “suspended in air.”   It all began in the 11th century with the rise of monastic life at Meteora. This is when hermit monks sought solitude in the caves of these dramatic cliffs. By the 14th century, the monasteries served as a refuge from Turkish invasions and various conflicts. While at some point in history, the site had 24 monasteries, only six remain active today. It goes without saying that the architectural achievement and natural beauty of this ancient site made Meteora a UNESCO World Heritage Site.   The largest and most important monastery is the 14th-century Monastery of Great Meteoron, which houses an impressive collection of relics, manuscripts, and frescoes. The 16th-century Monastery of Varlaam will offer you breathtaking views. As for the Monastery of Rousanou, this one is known for its easy access and is dedicated to the Transfiguration of Christ.   You will also enjoy exploring the Monastery of Holy Trinity, which was featured in the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only. This one is perched on a remote rock pinnacle and is one of the most visually striking of the Meteora monasteries.   2. Ayutthaya, Thailand Wat Mahathat temple in Ayutthaya, Thailand. Source: Flickr   This was the Siamese Kingdom’s second capital and was founded in 1350. The city connected the East and West, with it being a major trading hub for over 400 years. However, the Burmese Army tragically destroyed Ayutthaya in 1767. Still, its historic ruins are here to stay, and the city was designated in 1991 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.   If you want to see the image of a Buddha’s head entwined in tree roots, then this is possible at Ayutthaya’s famous Wat Mahathat temple. You can also visit the spiritual center of the city as well as an important part of the royal palace complex by heading to the Wat Phra Si Sanphet temple. The latter has three large stupas housing the ashes of kings.   Another historical landmark worth exploring when visiting Ayutthaya is the 15th-century  Wat Ratchaburana temple, which is known for its towering prang. This unique temple was built by King Borommarachathirat II in memory of his two brothers, who died in a battle for the throne.   You will also enjoy visiting the Wat Chaiwatthanaram temple, Bang Pa-In Royal Palace, Wat Yai Chai Mongkhon temple, Ayutthaya Historical Study Centre, and Wat Phanan Choeng temple when spending a vacation in this historic Thai city.   3. Ephesus, Turkey Ruins of ancient theater in Ephesus, Turkey. Source: Pexels   This former Greco-Roman city is today an iconic archaeological site located in Turkey. Greek colonists founded Ephesus in the 10th century BC, and it later became a major city of the Roman Empire. It was famous for its grand architecture and mostly for being the site of the Temple of Artemis. This is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.   Also, Ephesus has a significant Christian history. It’s the city where St. Paul lived and later wrote the “Epistle to the Ephesians.” Unfortunately, Ephesus became abandoned in the 15th century following invasions and the buildup of silt in its harbor.   One of the most impressive and well-preserved structures in Ephesus is the Library of Celsus. You need to visit this historic landmark first thing on your trip to the city. This site was built in the 2nd century AD, and it will give you a glimpse into the grandeur of Roman architecture.   Ephesus is also home to a massive 25,000-seat amphitheater known as the Great Theatre. On top of being used for performances, gladiatorial contests, and political meetings, it also had religious significance as St. Paul preached in this theatre.   Other key historical landmarks worth visiting when you’re in Ephesus include the Temple of Artemis despite its little remains, the Terrace Houses, which are homes of wealthy Ephesians filled with intricate mosaics and frescoes, the Basilica of St. John, the Temple of Hadrian, the House of the Virgin Mary, and the Ephesus Archaeological Museum.   4. Mont Saint-Michel, France Aerial view of the Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel, France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This iconic historical site is located off the French coast of Normandy, and its impressive history is rooted in military and religious significance. Per legend, the Archangel Michael appeared to Aubert, the bishop of Avranches, and told him to build a church atop the rocky island. This happened in the 8th century.   Over the centuries, Mont Saint-Michel became an important Christian pilgrimage site and then served as a strategic fortress during the Hundred Years’ War. During the French Revolution and Napoleonic era, the site was used as a prison. The unique location and dramatic tides surrounding the now UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site made it nearly impossible for invaders to conquer.   If you’re a lover of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, then head first to the Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel. You can also enjoy some panoramic views of the bay by heading to the Abbey Church.   Make sure to also see the Ramparts that circle the island. These medieval walls were built to defend the site from invaders. The island’s main street, La Grande Rue, is where you will see medieval houses, quaint shops, and unique restaurants. And don’t forget to explore the 11th-century Parish Church of Saint-Pierre. This is still active today, and it’s where local islanders worship.   5. Neuschwanstein Castle, Germany Neuschwanstein Castle in Germany. Source: Wikimedia Commons   King Ludwig II of Bavaria, or the “Fairy Tale King” as they used to call him, commissioned this iconic castle in 1869. While it was intended to be the king’s personal retreat and serve as a tribute to the medieval legends Ludwig adored, mainly his admiration for composer Richard Wagner, it didn’t go as planned. The king died mysteriously in 1886, even before the castle was fully completed. It wasn’t too late until the architectural marvel was opened to the public.   Today, this historic structure that is nestled in the Bavarian Alps of Germany is one of the world’s most famous castles. It even served as the inspiration for Disney’s Sleeping Beauty Castle.   Visiting the Neuschwanstein Castle is a must if you’re a history buff. Start by exploring the majestic Throne Hall with its Byzantine-style grandeur, then head to the Singer’s Hall, inspired by Wagner’s operas. You can learn about King Ludwig’s lavish tastes and witness the intricate Gothic style at the King’s Apartments. One impressive feature of the castle is the Grotto, an artificial cave and waterfall designed as a private retreat for the king.   6. Teotihuacan, Mexico The Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan, Mexico. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This is one of the most mysterious ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Teotihuacan’s builders remain unknown. However, we know that the Aztecs have given it its current name, which means “the place where gods were created.” They also obviously revered it as a sacred site. The ancient city was established around 100 BCE and later became a powerful economic, political, and religious center between 100 and 600 CE.   Today, Teotihuacan is one of the largest and most impressive pre-Columbian archaeological sites in the Americas. It’s also designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.   The most iconic landmark and largest structure of the historic city is the Pyramid of the Sun. Make sure to climb to the top of it to soak up the breathtaking views of Teotihuacan. Equally impressive is the Pyramid of the Moon, located at the northern end of the Avenue of the Dead.   Other iconic landmarks that you should visit when in Teotihuacan include the Temple of the Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl) and the Palace of the Quetzalpapálotl where high-ranking priests or nobles likely resided.   7. Capitol Building, Washington DC, USA The US Capitol building, Washington DC. Source: National Endowment for the Humanities   The symbol of American democracy, home of the US Congress since 1793, the year its construction began, is the US Capitol Building. Numerous expansions and renovations have changed this iconic place over the years. This includes, for example, the addition of the unique dome in the 1850s. During the War of 1812, the Capitol was partially burned by the British forces. However, it was quickly restored.   With its Neoclassical and Romanesque Revival architectural styles, it’s definitely a sight to behold for art and history lovers. Key landmarks within the Capitol include the Rotunda, with its historic sculptures and frescoes, as well as the National Statuary Hall, home to statues of notable Americans.   You can learn about the United States legislative process by exploring the Crypt or watching a session at the Senate and House Chambers. Also, in 2008, the underground Capitol Visitor Center came to be. Visit for exhibits about the history of the Capitol, government workings, and the legislative process.   8. Borobudur, Indonesia The Borobudur Temple in Central Java, Indonesia. Source: Flickr   Visiting the world’s largest Buddhist temple during your lifetime can be a meaningful goal, and you can achieve that by heading to Central Java in Indonesia.  This is where you will witness one of the greatest architectural masterpieces of ancient Southeast Asia, the Borobudur.   This structure was built by the Shailendra Dynasty in the 8th and 9th centuries and is designed as a massive Stupa. The temple is made up of nine stacked platforms. Six are square and three circular, topped by a central dome. When you’re in the complex, you will have the chance to see 504 Buddha statues and 2,672 relief panels.   Due to the region converting to Islam and because of the site’s volcanic eruptions, the Borobudur was abandoned. This happened around the 14th century. It wasn’t until the 19th century that the temple was rediscovered. It later underwent major restorations and made it to the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1991.   9. The Forbidden City, China The northwest corner tower of the Forbidden City in Beijing, China. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty built this architectural landmark between 1406 and 1420, where it served as the imperial palace for around 500 years. It actually housed 24 emperors from both the Ming and the Qing Dynasties.   The Forbidden City remained the political and ceremonial center of Chinese governance until 1912, the year of the fall of the Qing Dynasty. This was when China became a republic.   Located in the heart of Beijing, it is today the world’s largest palace and spans 180 acres surrounded by a 26-foot-high impressive wall and a wide moat. One thing to note is that the public was banned from visiting the historical landmark for centuries, hence it was named the “Forbidden City.” However, today, it’s one of the most popular tourist destinations in China and definitely a UNESCO World Heritage Site.   The first thing you’ll see when visiting the Forbidden City is the Meridian Gate, the grand entrance to the palace, after which you’ll witness the Hall of Supreme Harmony or Taihe Dian. The latter is basically the site’s largest and most important building, as this is where emperors were enthroned.   You will also explore the Imperial Garden which offered a serene retreat for the royal family, as well as the Palace Museum, housing an impressive collection of artifacts from China’s imperial history.   10. Montserrat, Spain Abbey of Montserrat in Spain. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This dramatic mountain range is located within an hour’s drive from Barcelona and is famous for the Benedictine monastery of Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey. Although the monastery was formally founded in the 11th century, the abbey’s origins date back to the 9th century.   The revered statue of La Moreneta, or the Black Madonna, is housed in the monastery. It’s a Romanesque carving of the Virgin Mary, the patron saint of Catalonia. For centuries, the region has been a place of pilgrimage. While the monastery was destroyed during the Napoleonic Wars, it was later rebuilt. Today, Montserrat remains a vibrant religious community.   Apart from visiting the Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey and witnessing the famous Black Madonna statue, you will also enjoy exploring the Montserrat Basilica, which is attached to the monastery. Here, you can hear the famous boys’ choir, Escolania de Montserrat.   Make sure to also visit the Montserrat Museum for some artwork by Picasso, El Greco, and others. It’s also a good idea to take the Sant Joan Funicular to higher parts of the mountain and enjoy the hiking trails and breathtaking views of the rugged landscape and surrounding valleys.