Mountain men of the frontier days truly captured the early American spirit. Brave‚ taming the wilderness‚ and ready for anything‚ many took a unique approach to Manifest Destiny‚ forging special relationships with nature and the Indigenous people of America. Hugh Glass was one of these men of legend‚ with a youth filled with sailing‚ living among Native Americans‚ and trapping. However‚ his name is most synonymous with one particular saga that almost took his life. Epitomizing true grit‚ Glass overcame incredible odds to survive the merciless American plains.   Hugh Glass: Separating Fact From Legend Illustration of Hugh Glass and the Grizzly Bear‚ by Severino Baraldi/Look and Learn. Source: Cowboys &; Indians Magazine   Like many others from the early American West‚ Hugh Glass’s story has been embellished and inflated with various retellings. It has been told and retold many times over in history‚ in oral‚ written‚ and visual form‚ with additions and subtractions along the way. Most Americans familiar with the name Hugh Glass probably saw his story come to life on the big screen in the 2015 film The Revenant‚ starring Leonardo DiCaprio as the protagonist. Though the film was “inspired by a true story‚” it‚ of course‚ takes a great deal of artistic license to add drama and keep audiences on the edge of their seats.   Leonardo DiCaprio in The Revenant. Source: Kimberly French/20th Century Fox   As with many forms of history‚ it can be difficult to distinguish the fact from the fiction in Glass’ tale‚ with some historians even believing that his entire life story was largely falsified by Glass himself. However‚ sticking with the most consistent facts available from the most reliable sources‚ let’s take a look at the admittedly incredible life of this early American character.   An Exciting Early Life Jean Lafitte illustration by Col. Frank Triplett. Source: Texas Highways   Hugh Glass is believed to have been born around 1780 in or near Philadelphia. His parents were Scots-Irish‚ but little else is known about his early life. He eventually became a sailor and‚ by some accounts‚ a ship’s captain. However‚ in 1818‚ he claimed to have been captured by the legendary pirate Jean Lafitte off the coast of Texas. Lafitte was an interesting character in US history‚ being both an ally and a nuisance at times.   A notorious pirate and slave trader who operated out of Louisiana‚ he was an invaluable supporter of the United States during the War of 1812‚ but in later years‚ would become a source of exasperation‚ disrupting US shipping. Glass was given the choice of either joining up with Lafitte’s crew or execution and so he chose to serve under the pirate.   Lasalle and the Karankawas by Jean Louis Berlander from The Indians of Texas in 1830. Source: Karankawas: People of the Gulf Coast   After about a year of piracy‚ Glass and a fellow crewmate found an opportunity to escape one night and waded ashore near present-day Galveston‚ Texas. Glass and his friend were nervous about encountering the Karankawa tribe‚ rumored to be cannibals. Though the Karankawas did practice ceremonial cannibalism‚ eating small amounts of the flesh of their traditional enemies‚ this had been a custom that was widespread among several Texas tribes during early centuries and had widely ceased among the tribe by the previous century.   Still‚ to avoid the feared man-eaters‚ Glass and his companion made a wide berth and headed north. Despite their efforts‚ they would be captured by an Indigenous group nonetheless. However‚ their captors were the Pawnee.   Life Among the Pawnee Cinnabar. Source: Natural Pigments   Glass claimed that his unnamed companion was killed by the Pawnee in a traditional manner‚ pierced with many slivers of pitch pine‚ which were then set ablaze. In an effort to save his life‚ Glass produced some cinnabar‚ also known as vermillion‚ an ore of oxidized mercury‚ that he had on his person from the pirate ship. This natural material has long been prized for its use as a paint base in cultures around the world and was well established as a diplomatic and trade good among America’s Indigenous groups by Glass’ time.   The Pawnee chief allegedly accepted the gift and Glass‚ sparing his life. Eventually‚ Glass would be adopted into the Loup band of Pawnee in what is now Kansas. Contrary to the film version of Glass’ life‚ he did not have a half-Pawnee son.   A traditional Pawnee home. Source: The Ponca City News   In 1822‚ Glass’ band visited St. Louis‚ and he made the decision to leave his adopted tribe and signed up as a hunter and trapper with the Ashley Fur Company. This was an incredibly lucrative profession if one was cut out for it. It meant suffering through brutal conditions in the Great Plains and among the Rocky Mountains‚ facing inevitable danger‚ but there was a fortune to be made for those who could survive. Beaver fur‚ especially‚ was in high demand in Europe at this time in order to meet the latest fashion trends. William Ashley had already left to trap with over 100 men‚ but Glass would be part of what came to be known as the Second Ashley Expedition.   The Second Ashley Expedition Recruitment advertisement by William Ashley. Source: On the Road Again   By March 1823‚ William Ashley had returned to St. Louis. He and his partner Andrew Henry had established the Rocky Mountain Fur Company the year before‚ and they were eager to take advantage of the booming fur business. Their first expedition built a fort at the mouth of the Yellowstone River in the fall of 1822‚ and “Ashley’s 100” was eager to move forward into the unknown West and make their fortune.   Among the group were a young Jim Bridger‚ age 17‚ and Jedidiah Smith‚ who would later become famous in their own right. At around 40 years of age‚ Glass was on the older side for a trapper but was in good physical condition and ready to meet the challenge.   Arikara men performing a medicine ceremony‚ by Edward S. Curtis‚ 1908. Source: Northwestern University Library   Not long after the expedition set out‚ they were caught in a surprise attack one night by the Arikara (commonly called the “Rees” by the trappers) tribe. The tribe had been in recent conflict with other fur trappers that had crossed through their traditional lands. Fourteen of Ashley’s men were killed and 11 wounded in the attack‚ including Glass‚ though not grievously. To avoid further conflict after the initial attack‚ Ashley and Henry decided to abandon their original route and split their men into two groups. Jedediah Smith would lead one group west‚ while Andrew Henry would lead the group that included Glass northwesterly.   The Attack Family Portrait‚ grizzly bear and cubs‚ by Joseph C. Filer. Source: Joseph C. Filer Fine Art Photography   Glass was tasked to hunt game for the group’s subsistence near the fork of the Grand River in South Dakota when he surprised a mother bear and her two cubs. Anyone familiar with wildlife knows that a mother bear with cubs is the most dangerous type of bear to encounter in the wild.   Glass managed to get off a couple of shots‚ which the rest of his party heard‚ but was unable to kill the bear before she mauled him severely. When the rest of the group came running to the shots and Glass’ screams‚ they found Glass on the brink of death‚ with numerous ghastly wounds‚ including a broken leg and torn scalp. He had lacerations on his back deep enough to expose his rib bones. His party killed the bear‚ but not in time to save him from what looked like a certain death. His friends feared he would pass by morning and did their best to make him comfortable.   Caught off Guard by David Wright. Source: WKMS   Glass defied the odds and remained among the living into the next morning‚ but Henry wanted to keep moving. The group would be in danger otherwise—the Arikara were always a threat‚ and they would be much safer reuniting with the other group at their destination. He ordered a makeshift stretcher built and had Glass carried along.   However‚ after two days‚ Henry realized that carrying Glass slowed the entire group down. Not wanting to abandon Glass but needing to look out for the welfare of the entire group‚ Henry offered a cash bonus to whichever two men would volunteer to stay with Glass until his death‚ give him a Christian burial‚ and then catch up with the rest of the group. A man named John Fitzgerald and a teenager referred to only as “Bridges‚” whom many believe was the young Jim Bridger‚ volunteered to stay.   Jim Bridger in his older years. Source: History Net   Five days after Henry and the rest of the troop had departed‚ Glass was still alive‚ and Fitzgerald grew nervous. Glass had survived longer than anyone had expected‚ yet he wasn’t really healing‚ and every second that he and his companion spent out in the wilderness with him put them further behind the rest of the group and in more danger from the Ree. He convinced Bridges/Bridger that they had fulfilled their obligation since Glass had lived longer than anyone had expected and was certain to die anytime. They left the stretcher beside a spring and took off to catch up with the rest of the men‚ taking with them all of Glass’ supplies: his gun‚ tomahawk‚ and knife‚ as a dead man would have no use for these items.   Determined to Survive Monument to Hugh Glass at Shadehill Recreation Area‚ where a Rendezvous is held each August in celebration of the mountain man. Source: Travel South Dakota   Although Glass was on death’s door‚ he was conscious and aware that he had been abandoned. Once his fever broke‚ he summoned what little strength he had and managed to choke down some nearby berries and drink from the spring. After resting some more‚ he managed to kill a rattlesnake to eat. When he had regained some energy‚ he set his own leg.   Maggots had begun cleaning his wounds. He wrapped himself in the only resource he had‚ the hide of the bear that had killed him‚ which had been intended to be his burial shroud‚ and slowly made his way to the Cheyenne River.   A sketch of the real Hugh Glass (left)‚ next to a photo of actor Leonardo DiCaprio playing the mountain man (right). Source: All That’s Interesting   When he made it there‚ he built a meager raft and floated downstream to Fort Kiowa‚ eating berries‚ insects‚ and roots to survive the six weeks it took. Some sources also cite assistance from the Lakota along his journey‚ who provided him with food and helped dress his wounds. When he made it to Fort Kiowa in October 1823‚ Glass had covered 250 miles.   Superhuman Grit Sculpture of Hugh Glass’ grizzly attack by John Lopex. Source: Travel South Dakota   What motivated Glass’ fight to survive&;#63; He lacked many of the motivations observed in other amazing survival situations‚ such as a family and children waiting for him to come home. Some sources cite Glass’ desire to gain revenge on those who abandoned him‚ Fitzgerald in particular‚ as a fire burning in the pit of his stomach pushing him on his journey. Others maintain he simply wanted his beloved rifle returned to him (and he would eventually be reunited with it).   Glass is cited as one who remained focused on the situation at hand‚ regardless of what else was going on‚ and perhaps it was this drive that allowed him to survive his ordeal. Despite the reason for his success (and how much of his story is accurate)‚ Hugh Glass is a memorable figure in American history who inspired his contemporaries and the next generation of mountain men.

  The world of South African politics has been a confusing place. From the years of struggle against apartheid to the post-apartheid era‚ questions over peace‚ reparations‚ redistribution‚ and attitudes toward one another often offer difficult paths fraught with paradoxes.   Winnie Mandela‚ the ex-wife of President Nelson Mandela‚ was a person who tread a confusing path. She was very active in the fight against racial oppression and did not shy away from using violent methods to achieve these ends. In this context‚ she won the hearts of an embittered people‚ while others decried her casual enthusiasm for the extreme.   Despite the charges of human rights abuses as a freedom fighter and accusations of fraud and theft as a government minister‚ Winnie Mandela is still seen in a favorable light by millions of South Africans who gave her the title of “Mother of the Nation.”   The Early Life of Winnie Mandela Bizana in the Eastern Cape is a rural area of rolling hills and sporadic settlements. Source: Google Earth   Nomzamo Winifred Zanyiwe Madikizela was born on September 26‚ 1936 in the rural town of Bizana in the Transkei (now Eastern Cape). Her mother‚ Nomathamsanqa Mzaidume (Gertrude)‚ and her father‚ Columbus Kokani Madikizela‚ were both teachers. In later years‚ Columbus also became the minister of Forestry and Agriculture in Transkei’s local government.   Both parents were devout Methodists and had a total of nine children. Winnie was the fifth of these children. She had six sisters and two brothers. Gertrude‚ her mother‚ was of mixed ancestry. One of her parents was white‚ and Gertrude inherited red hair and blue eyes. As a result‚ she was teased as being mlungu (a white person).   Winnie was given the name Nomzamo‚ which translates as “she who must endure trials‚” although‚ from her childhood actions‚ it seems it may have been her enemies who were just as suited to the name. Winnie was an aggressive child and was always ready to take action against those she disagreed with.   Not content with fighting with only hands and fists or even sticks‚ she once took a baking tin and fashioned a knuckle-duster by pushing a nail through it. She used it against her sister‚ aiming for her arm‚ but instead slashing her face so badly she needed stitches. Her mother gave her a severe beating. Despite the harsh treatment meted out‚ Winnie had a great affection for her mother.   Winnie Mandela in her younger days in the early years of her marriage to Nelson. Source: IMDb / Baha   Within a short space of time‚ tragedy struck twice. When Winnie was about eight or nine years old‚ her older sister died of tuberculosis. Her mother‚ who had prayed with fervor the whole time‚ contracted the disease and passed away soon after. Winnie was heartbroken‚ but before her mother had died‚ she gave birth to a boy. Winnie proved she had a gentle side and helped raise the child with tenderness and affection.   The loss of her mother brought Winnie closer to her father‚ who‚ until then‚ had been a somewhat aloof figure in Winnie’s life. In some respects‚ he took over the attention that her mother would have usually given. He encouraged her education‚ and Winnie fell in love with the literary world and could often be seen with her head buried in a book.   Her first introduction to racial inequality came in 1945 during the celebrations that took place at the end of the Second World War. Winnie begged her father to take her to the town center of Bizana to join in‚ but when they arrived‚ they discovered the event was for “whites only.” Thereafter‚ Winnie grew more sensitive to racial injustice in the world around her.   Johannesburg in 1953. Source: SAR Publicity and Travel Department / Digital Rail Images of South Africa (DRISA)   Winnie excelled at school‚ matriculating from Shawbury in the nearby town of Qumbu. She was taught by several teachers who had graduated from Fort Hare‚ a university that had fostered the education of many of the anti-apartheid icon struggles‚ including Winnie’s future husband‚ Nelson Mandela. Through this schooling‚ she became more politically minded.   After achieving a first-class pass from Shawbury‚ Winnie returned home to Bizana‚ where she discovered her father had remarried. Hilda Nophikela received a warm welcome into the family from all the children‚ including Winnie.   In 1953‚ Winnie moved to Johannesburg‚ where she took up studies at the Jan Hofmeyr School of Social Work. In this urban environment‚ she saw the effects of apartheid on a daily basis‚ but she nevertheless loved the city. It was also in Johannesburg that she discovered a passion for dancing and fashion‚ and where she discovered the sprawling township of Soweto‚ where Black people lived in poverty.   Winnie and Nelson Nelson and Winnie on their wedding day‚ June 14‚ 1958. Source: public domain via Black Past   After graduating from the Jan Hofmeyr School of Social Work‚ she attained a position as a medical social worker at Baragwanath Hospital in Johannesburg. Despite apartheid‚ Winnie Madikizela was the first Black woman to hold the post of medical social worker at this hospital.   While working at Baragwanath‚ Winnie met the future wife of Oliver Tambo‚ the man who would later become the president of the African National Congress (ANC). Through Adelaide Tsukhudu‚ she would also be introduced to Tambo’s lawyer‚ Nelson Mandela.   At the age of 22‚ she met Mandela‚ already a stalwart of the resistance movement against apartheid‚ and they became romantically involved. Nelson asked Winnie for her hand in marriage on March 10‚ 1957‚ and the following year‚ they were married.   With Nelson being involved in his trial for treason and both becoming ardent activists‚ their lives were busy‚ but despite the difficulties‚ their marriage was strong. Their home was also constantly monitored and raided by police.   In October 1958‚ Winnie Mandela took part in a mass protest of South Africa’s pass laws in an event that would result in over 1‚000 women being arrested. Along with hundreds of other women‚ Winnie decided not to immediately apply for bail. This was a sign of further protest‚ and it was also her first glimpse into the horrendous conditions in South Africa’s prisons. She lost her job at Baragwanath as a result‚ but she also gained fame as an anti-apartheid activist in her own right. Winnie certainly did not live in the shadow of her husband.   Conflict With the Law Winnie Mandela gives a salute through a window. Source: NBC News   In 1961‚ Nelson Mandela was arrested for high treason. He would eventually be sentenced to life in prison‚ leaving Winnie to carry on the fight without him. Sensing her ability to be an influential figure in the anti-apartheid movement‚ the government restricted Winnie’s movements and forbade her from addressing more than two people. Under constant surveillance‚ her life became filled with police informants posing as friends and acquaintances‚ and she developed a high level of distrust for anyone she met.   She had had two daughters with Nelson‚ who were also targeted by police surveillance. Zenani and Zindziswa were subject to being randomly expelled from schools‚ and they suffered immensely with their mother. They were eventually sent to a school in neighboring Swaziland. On May 12‚ 1969‚ Winnie’s home was raided. Her daughters were home from the holidays‚ and they had to watch as their mother was arrested and thrown in the back of a police van. She was charged with violating the Terrorism Act‚ No 83‚ which allowed for the arrest of anybody suspected of disrupting law and order.   Cover of Drum Magazine‚ photograph by Bob Gosani‚ August 1957 issue. The figure on the left is Nelson Mandela. Source: Mutual Art   Winnie Mandela spent 17 months in prison‚ with 13 of them being in solitary confinement. The only contact she had was with her interrogators‚ who tortured her to gain information on the activities of the ANC. Her trial began on December 1‚ 1969‚ and after lengthy proceedings‚ she was finally cleared of the charges.   Upon her release‚ she was subjected to another banning order‚ restricting her movements and the people she could contact. In 1973‚ she ran afoul of one of these successive orders and was arrested for meeting with Peter Magubane‚ the editor of Drum magazine‚ a publication whose target audience was Black people. She was sentenced to 12 months in prison‚ of which she served only six.   In the 1970s‚ Winnie had become a mother figure to the anti-apartheid movement. With the influence of Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement‚ the struggle had been taken up by a new generation of young activists who fought against the injustices of apartheid.   Winnie Mandela stood beside her husband upon his release from prison in February 1990. Source: Creative Commons / South Africa Gateway   Winnie was heavily involved in the South African Student’s Organisation‚ which organized the march in 1976‚ which led to the Soweto Uprising‚ a huge protest against the Bantu Education Act. The protests became violent‚ and hundreds of protestors were shot and killed by the South African Police. Looking for a scapegoat in what was a widespread uprising‚ Winnie Mandela was arrested again. She served five months without being charged and‚ upon her release‚ was handed another banning order.   On May 15‚ 1977‚ the police picked Winnie up again. This time‚ they were taking her to a dusty little town called Brandfort in the middle of the Orange Free State. The government hoped that by exiling her to this town‚ her political activities and her influence would be curbed.   It did not stop her at all. She created social work initiatives to help the people there. When her banishment ended in 1986‚ she returned home to Johannesburg to find that her influence had not waned at all. She was considered one of the most powerful figures in the anti-apartheid movement.   Her activities‚ however‚ would take a dark turn. Affected by decades of being hounded by police and spied on‚ Winnie had become incredibly paranoid. Her personal bodyguards‚ known as the Mandela United Football Club‚ gained a reputation for brutality. Suspected of being an informant‚ they abducted 14-year-old Stompie Moeketsi and three of his friends. In December 1989‚ Stompie was tortured and killed.   Very soon after‚ her husband Nelson Mandela was released from prison due to complex political maneuverings and international pressure. Winnie was there in solidarity with her husband‚ but as the months passed‚ it became clear that their lives had created irreconcilable differences between the two.   Winnie Mandela on her 80th birthday. Source: GCIS via South African Government on Flickr   She was later convicted of abducting and being an accessory to the assault of Stompie Moeketsi and was sentenced to six years in prison‚ but a successful appeal saw this sentence being reduced to a fine.   Among Winnie’s legal battles‚ the couple announced they were separating in 1992.   Despite her now checkered reputation‚ Winnie Mandela was elected head of the ANC Women’s League‚ and after the ANC won the 1994 election (South Africa’s first democratic election after apartheid)‚ she became a minister in the government. One year later‚ Nelson Mandela fired her for allegations of corruption.   Nelson and Winnie finalized their divorce in 1996.   At this time‚ the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) began touring South Africa‚ listening to people under amnesty tell their stories of what happened to them during apartheid. This was an opportunity for both victims and perpetrators to tell their stories. Winnie appeared before the TRC and was found to have committed “gross violations of human rights.”   In 1999‚ she was re-elected to parliament but was again accused of fraud‚ and she resigned from her post.   Later Years &; Death The funeral of Winnie Mandela. Source: Lucky Nxumalo / City Press   In her later years‚ Winnie was still vocal. She made controversial statements‚ criticizing Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu. Her international reputation had also been tainted‚ and she would often be referred to as “Nelson Mandela’s crazy ex-wife.”   On April 2‚ 2018‚ following a severe kidney infection‚ Winnie Mandela died at the age of 81. She was given a state funeral‚ an event that drew tens of thousands of mourners. The controversial “Mother of the Nation” had passed away.   Winnie Mandela. Source: Felix Meyburgh / IMDb   Hailed as a hero of the struggle‚ Winnie Mandela faced many difficulties in her life‚ constantly fighting against authorities. This dynamic turned her into a suspicious and complex character. She drew the love of millions and the ire of many other millions. In a country as fractured as South Africa‚ admired and hated‚ Winnie Mandela is a contentious figure who still manages to generate great debate over her role in the history of the country.

  When Sam Phillips launched his record company in 1952‚ he was optimistic. He hoped to harness local creativity and bring Memphis’ diverse music scene to the world at large. Little did he know‚ he would discover some of the biggest names in music history and alter the face of recording history forever while fighting to develop his independent record label amid a growing Tennessee music industry. The artists who got their start at Sun would go on to create and cross genres‚ make headlines‚ and win countless awards. Here’s a look at the 4 most important artists to work with Sun Records.   A Quick History: Sun Rises Sam Phillips‚ left‚ with Elvis Presley. Source: Colorado Public Radio   Sam Philips‚ the visionary founder of Sun Records‚ was born in 1923 in Alabama. He spent his young working life as a disc jockey‚ announcer‚ and broadcast engineer before opening Memphis Recording Service in 1950. He recorded several local blues artists under this label‚ including B.B. King. Two years later‚ he rebranded as Sun Records‚ the name reflective of “a new day and a new beginning.” Sun quickly gained a reputation as a respectful and honest label that was non-critical and welcoming to local artists. To make ends meet‚ Phillips offered recording services to anyone who wanted to record a special message or song for a birthday‚ for instance‚ at the price of $1.99. He also recorded weddings and other special events.   Sun Records logo. Source: Sun Records   Sun would face its hardships‚ coming of age in an era where independent record labels were plenty‚ and the music scene was rapidly evolving. However‚ it has gone down in history as recording what experts consider the first rock and roll song and launching the careers of some of the most famous rock‚ rockabilly‚ and country singers of all time.   1. Elvis Presley Elvis’ yearbook photo from Hume High School. Source: Elvis Blog   In 1953‚ 18-year-old Elvis Presley was working as a truck driver for Crown Electric in the Memphis area. He loved to sing but was shy. His mother loved his voice‚ and as a birthday gift for her‚ he decided to take advantage of Phillip’s $1.99 recording offer. He visited Sun and covered two ballads‚ “My Happiness” and “That’s When Your Heartaches Begin.”   Whether or not Phillips was present for this initial visit is of some dispute. Phillips’ longtime secretary‚ Marion Keisker‚ said he was not and that she made a note of Elvis’ name for her boss‚ as he had been looking for someone with a similar sound. However‚ Phillips said in later interviews that he was present during Elvis’ first visit and instantly knew he had something special. Regardless of when he first heard Elvis sing‚ Philips knew he wanted to hear more.   An Elvis Sun Records recording. Source: Reusell   Elvis was invited back to the Sun studio in 1954 to jam with guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black. The trio experimented with a variety of country and pop songs with Phillips. During a break‚ Elvis broke into an impromptu version of “That’s All Right‚” a blues song by Arthur Crudup. Phillips asked him to repeat the song and recorded it. He gave the recording to his friend Dewey Phillips (no relation)‚ a local radio DJ‚ and Dewey played it on his station that night. Listeners were instantly calling in‚ requesting that the song be played again and again. The rest was history.   Elvis in 1956. Source: AP Photo via AZ Central   Sun Records would release five singles from Elvis Presley over the next year. However‚ financial troubles came calling‚ and Sam Phillips found his company in need of capital. He then sold Elvis’ recording contract to RCA in November 1955 for the price of $35‚000‚ the highest price ever paid for a pop artist to that date. Though Elvis went on to be wildly successful‚ Phillips said he never regretted the decision. Sun’s popularity would continue to surge‚ and Elvis and Phillips remained friends.   2. Johnny Cash Sam Phillips‚ left‚ and Johnny Cash. Source: Michael Ochs photo via Rolling Stone   Gifted with natural talent‚ John R. Cash bought his first guitar for $5 and wrote a number of songs that would later rocket him to fame while he was living in Germany during his stint in the US Air Force. Upon the conclusion of his deployment‚ Cash and his wife Vivian settled in Memphis‚ where he worked as an appliance salesman and formed a band‚ the Tennessee Two‚ with friends Luther Perkins and Marshall Grant.   Cash approached Sam Phillips multiple times and was repeatedly turned down for an audition. He finally convinced Phillips to let him and his band play for him‚ and they performed several gospel songs live. Phillips told him to “go home and sin‚ then come back with a song I can sell.”   Cash was persistent and kept coming back with more material. Eventually‚ Phillips was convinced‚ and Johnny Cash was signed to Sun Records in 1955. The band’s first recordings were “Hey Porter” and “Cry Cry Cry.” The second single‚ “Folsom Prison Blues‚” which Cash had written in Germany after watching a movie called Inside the Walls of Folsom Prison‚ rocketed to Country Top 5.   Record by Johnny Cash and The Tennessee Two. Source: Sun Records   Cash became the first Sun artist to release a long-playing album. After reigning as Sun’s consistently best-selling artist for a time‚ Cash signed with Columbia Records in 1958‚ going on to sell over 90 million albums over a fifty-year career and infiltrating both the country and rock charts. Recording right up to his advanced years‚ Cash passed away in September of 2003 from complications from diabetes.   3. Carl Perkins Carl Perkins. Source: Rock &; Roll Hall of Fame   Rockabilly pioneer Carl Perkins wrote “Blue Suede Shoes” on Johnny Cash’s suggestion after the two laughed over a teenage fan growling at his female companion not to “step on” his “suedes” while Perkins played at a dance. Perkins‚ who already had a few hits on the Sun label after joining Phillip’s posse in 1955‚ recorded the boogie in two takes in December of that year‚ and it crossed genres‚ playing on country‚ blues‚ and pop stations across the country. He reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts‚ trailing just behind Elvis’ “Heartbreak Hotel.” Presley went on to record his own version of the song but wouldn’t release it until Perkins’ run with the song was complete.   The “Million Dollar Quartet”: Jerry Lee Lewis‚ Carl Perkins‚ Johnny Cash‚ and Elvis Presley‚ record at Sun Records in 1956. Source: YSO Life   Perkins sold over one million copies of the song by April and followed its success with several more songs that would come to be known as rockabilly standards‚ including “Everybody’s Trying to Be My Baby.” However‚ none of them would reach the peak that “Blue Suede Shoes” did‚ and Perkins also moved to Columbia Records in 1958. His career experienced a series of ups and downs after that‚ including losing two brothers who were also bandmates‚ recording with the Beatles‚ opening for Johnny Cash‚ and a residency at a Las Vegas casino.   Carl Perkins played with a variety of other artists over the years‚ including this event in 1985. Source: TMDB   Despite never achieving a hit album like his contemporaries at Sun‚ Carl Perkins always maintained that he was satisfied with his career and with life in general. Sam Phillips would be the one to induct Perkins into the Rock &; Roll Hall of Fame in 1987. He married his wife Valda in 1953‚ and the two remained together until his death in 1998. The couple had three sons‚ one daughter‚ and ten grandchildren. He died from complications from a series of strokes.   4. Jerry Lee Lewis Jerry Lee Lewis in 1957. Source: Michael Ochs Images via Rolling Stone   Seemingly attempting to live up to his nickname “The Killer‚” Jerry Lee Lewis seemed to capture all of the rebellious attitude that early rock &; roll had to offer. At age 21 in 1956‚ Lewis walked into the Sun Records studio and demanded an audition with Sam Phillips. His timing couldn’t have been better‚ as this was just after Sun had sold Elvis’ contract and was in need of a new star to take his place.   Jerry Lee Lewis at the piano. Source: CNN   Lewis’ first big hit was “Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On‚” released in April 1957. The song hit #3 on the pop charts and sold six million copies. In November‚ he followed it up with another one of his most notable hits‚ “Great Balls of Fire‚” which was written by Otis Blackwell‚ the man who was also responsible for Elvis’ hits “All Shook Up” and “Don’t Be Cruel.” Lewis was a theatrical and talented piano player‚ often kicking his piano bench aside and standing up while tossing his hair and dancing. Audiences loved his wild performances. He also worked as a studio musician for Phillips.   Jerry Lee Lewis and his third wife‚ Myra Gale Brown. Source: New York Post   However‚ Lewis’ star would fall‚ and his relationship with Sun suffered as a result. As he headed on tour through Britain in 1958‚ reporters discovered that the young lady traveling with him was thirteen years old and married to Lewis. Not only this‚ Myra Gale Brown was his cousin‚ and Lewis had still been married to his second wife when he took up with Brown. Though Brown seemed perfectly fine with the arrangement and Lewis defended his marriage‚ he cut his tour short and headed home to find that a scandal had erupted and followed him across the Atlantic.   Sun was hesitant to promote his future work‚ and their relationship ended in 1963‚ during which time many radio stations refused to play Lewis’ music‚ and concerts were few and far between. His career would see a redemption in the late 1960s when he rebranded as a country artist. However‚ heavy drinking and drug use began to take their toll in the 70s and 80s‚ and he experienced a number of troubles in his life. He passed away in 2022‚ survived by his seventh wife and four children (one son predeceased him).

  The First Battle of Bull Run revealed that the Confederacy was not going to surrender easily‚ setting the stage for a long war. Quickly‚ the Union began strategizing on how to wear down the South. One first step was to prevent border states from joining the Confederacy‚ limiting the South’s manpower and industry. All eyes turned to Kentucky‚ which had a pro-Confederate governor versus a pro-Union legislature.   Victory Goes to… Nobody&;#63; Drawings of the (self-proclaimed) Union victory at Belmont‚ Missouri during the battle. Source: Son of the South   The first major battle since the Confederate victory at the First Battle of Bull Run is typically described as inconclusive‚ with both sides claiming victory. The battle resulted from both the Union and the Confederacy trying to control the neutral border state of Kentucky‚ which was split between a pro-Confederate governor and a pro-Union state legislature. Paducah‚ Kentucky became a Union stronghold‚ while the Confederates controlled the town of Columbus. Upon hearing that Confederate forces in Kentucky would soon be used to reinforce their compatriots elsewhere‚ it was decided that Union troops under Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant should try to keep the Confederates occupied.   Grant crossed the Mississippi River‚ aided by gunboats‚ and landed his troops at the small village of Belmont‚ Missouri. After a brief battle‚ Union troops captured a small Confederate camp and burned it. While Grant’s troops were returning to their transport boats‚ the Confederates counterattacked‚ leading to confusion about which side “won” the battle. Although the Union troops had captured and destroyed a small Confederate camp and been leaving in a pre-planned fashion‚ the Confederate counterattack drove them to a semi-panic. The South claimed it had driven back Union General Grant‚ while Grant claimed his operation had achieved all of its objectives.   Timeline of the Battle of Belmont A map showing the Union and Confederate efforts to control the northern Mississippi River early in the US Civil War. Source: Fry’s Lyon Foundation   Kentucky remained unoccupied by either military during the first few months of the US Civil War‚ but Confederate General Leonidas Polk decided to invade in early September of 1861 in order to pre-empt a possible Union invasion. The goal was to seize any valuable military or industrial assets in the state‚ which would be especially valuable to the less-industrialized South. The state was quickly split between a Union-controlled north and a Confederate-controlled south.   Skirmishes between the two militaries erupted in late October‚ with small Union victories. To reinforce their position in Columbus‚ Kentucky and make it more difficult to attack from the water‚ some Confederate troops occupied the village of Belmont and attempted to run a chain across the river.   Under orders from Major General John C. Fremont to keep the Confederate troops in the region occupied‚ Ulysses S. Grant had troops depart from Cairo‚ Illinois on boats to sail south and land at Belmont on November 6‚ 1861.   The next morning‚ the boats made the short journey to Hunter’s Farm‚ three miles outside of Belmont. After a quick march‚ Grant’s troops routed the small Confederate camp at Belmont.   Confederate general Leonidas Polk ordered a counterattack‚ and Grant retreated when he realized a large Confederate force was attacking.   Upon departing back to Cairo following the six-hour battle‚ Union gunboats managed to stop Confederate fire coming from the shore.   What Caused the Battle of Belmont&;#63; A map showing Kentucky and Missouri‚ separated by the Mississippi River‚ as border states that had not joined the Confederacy in 1861. Source: National Geographic Society   Both the Union and the Confederacy eagerly courted the border states of Delaware‚ Maryland‚ Kentucky‚ and Missouri. These were slave states that had a political and cultural mix of North and South. Although the states did not support anti-slavery candidate Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 presidential election‚ they also did not heed the call to secede from the union. Delaware was pro-Union‚ and Maryland was swiftly neutralized as a possible Confederate state by masses of Union troops moving through it to protect Washington DC. This left only Kentucky and Missouri up for strategic initiatives by both combatants.   Kentucky was a relatively developed border state with more slaveowners than some official Confederate states‚ making the state an attractive gain for the Confederacy. When neutrality was broken in early September‚ Confederate generals rushed to seize cities and build bases. Politically‚ Confederate General Leonidas Polk’s invasion of the state on September 3‚ 1861 backfired‚ outraging neutral Kentuckians and leading the state legislature to ask for Union assistance. The state of Kentucky became split between North and South‚ much like the United States itself‚ with Union General Ulysses S. Grant in the North and Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston in the South.   Why Was the Battle of Belmont Significant&;#63; Union gunboats on November 7‚ 1861 in a drawing of the Battle of Belmont. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   The battle is not often remembered‚ especially since its result was inconclusive. However‚ it is important because it laid the foundation for Union military and political successes later in the war. First‚ the battle showed that the Union was still willing to go on the offensive even after the humiliating loss at the First Battle of Bull Run. At the time‚ many Union generals were considered too risk-averse‚ frustrating US President Abraham Lincoln. Grant’s performance at Belmont‚ despite its inconclusive end‚ caught the eye of the commander-in-chief‚ especially since Grant showed personal bravery by being the last Union soldier aboard the transport boats back to Illinois.   Secondly‚ the battle helped improve the confidence and leadership of Ulysses S. Grant‚ who would later become the general-in-chief of all Union armies in 1864. It was Grant’s first battle as a general officer‚ and he displayed his trademark aggression when Polk’s reinforcements temporarily surrounded the Union troops.   “We had cut our way in and could cut our way out‚” Grant later said of the battle. Grant also accepted criticisms‚ showing he was not above trying to learn from his strategic errors. These qualities would hold him in good stead on his path to eventually becoming commander-in-chief himself in 1868.   5 Facts About the Battle of Belmont A photograph of Union Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant‚ who fought at Belmont in his first combat command during the Civil War. Source: National Park Service   1. Casualties Casualties were roughly equal for both sides at approximately 600. These included just over 100 men killed‚ 100 men captured or missing‚ and 400 men wounded. Union forces suffered slightly more killed in action‚ while the Confederates had slightly more wounded. Although some in the North criticized Grant’s losses‚ which seemed heavy at the time‚ the North could easily replace the lost soldiers…while the South could not.   2.  Commanders Union forces were led by Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant‚ a relatively rookie general officer. The leader of volunteer forces was only 39 years old and had been working at his father’s leather store when the Battle of Fort Sumter occurred. However‚ Grant was also a West Point graduate and veteran of the Mexican-American War. Despite not having wanted an army career after Mexico‚ Grant was appointed by the Illinois governor at the outset of the Civil War to train volunteers for service and quickly showed that he was a skilled leader.   Confederate forces at Belmont were led by General Leonidas K. Polk‚ a fellow West Point graduate. Unlike most generals of the Civil War‚ Polk was not a veteran of the Mexican-American War — he had left the military and become an Episcopal priest in 1841&;#33; Polk’s personal friendship with Confederate President Jefferson Davis won him a commission as a general‚ which was his first military activity since West Point graduation. The “Fighting Bishop‚” who had been building a college in Tennessee when the Civil War began‚ was quickly criticized for lack of military acumen.   3. Number of Forces Involved A map showing the location of the ground and naval Battle of Belmont in November 1861. Source: National Park Service   Ulysses S. Grant brought just over 3‚000 Union troops to Belmont via boats from Cairo‚ Illinois on November 7‚ 1861. Although they quickly overwhelmed a small number of Confederate soldiers in the camp at Belmont‚ they soon faced Polk’s 5‚000 Confederate reinforcements. These numbers would be dwarfed by those of later Civil War battles‚ which numbered in the tens of thousands of troops for each side.   4. Visiting Belmont‚ Missouri Today Today‚ the battlefield can be seen as part of the Columbus-Belmont State Park in Columbus‚ Kentucky (across the Mississippi River from Missouri). Visitors to the state park can see Civil War artifacts‚ including chains that the Confederacy tried to use to prevent Union ships from sailing down the Mississippi River. A campground at the park is open year-round. Visitors can also learn about the historic Trail of Tears‚ which passes through the area‚ as part of Native American history.   5. Trivia: Grant’s First (and Almost Last) Civil War Command The Battle of Belmont was Ulysses S. Grant’s first battle as a new general…and almost his last. During the battle‚ Polk had allegedly encouraged nearby Confederate troops to “try your marksmanship” on a Yankee soldier on horseback‚ which had been Grant in a common soldier’s overcoat. Nobody fired at Grant. Later‚ after riding aboard the departing steamship following the battle‚ Grant quickly rose from his sofa to observe the scene. A Confederate musket ball then ripped through the sofa where the young general had been only moments earlier&;#33;   Aftermath of Belmont: Slow Rise of Ulysses S. Grant Union general Ulysses S. Grant meeting with US President Abraham Lincoln. Source: Historic Petersburg Foundation   The inconclusive end to the battle was celebrated in the South as a victory‚ and some in the North even criticized Grant’s casualties. However‚ President Lincoln was eager for action and quickly came to favor Ulysses S. Grant. While the Civil War remained in a relative stalemate in the Eastern Theater between the Union capital of Washington DC and the Confederate capital of Richmond‚ Virginia‚ Grant began scoring strategic victories in the Western Theater. Only a few months after Belmont‚ he seized two Confederate forts in Tennessee.   Famously‚ Grant was defended by President Lincoln after his victory at Shiloh in April 1862. In response to criticisms of Grant’s high casualties‚ Lincoln responded: “I can’t spare this man‚ he fights.” The president praised Grant’s earnest and quiet‚ hardworking nature‚ which was unlike that of many of his fellow generals. Grant would remain in the Western Theater until early 1864 when he was made general-in-chief of all Union armies.

  Johnny Cash led an incredible life‚ with a musical career that crossed genres and spanned over fifty years. He released dozens of albums‚ starred in films‚ and wrote novels. Even after his 2003 death‚ he continues to inspire musicians and listeners across generations. However‚ he was not a man without struggles and sometimes paradoxes. Trouble often found him‚ but he was a man who remained true to his convictions. Read on to learn about some of the most interesting stories from the Man in Black’s colorful life.   1. Cash was the First American to Learn of Stalin’s Death Photograph of Joseph Stalin. Source: Biography   Before his musical career took off‚ John R. Cash served in the US Air Force for four years. For much of that time‚ he was deployed to Landsberg‚ Germany‚ where he worked as a Morse Intercept Operator. In Germany‚ he purchased his first guitar for $5 and played in a band with fellow servicemen‚ the Landsberg Barbarians. He wrote several formative songs while stationed in Germany‚ including “Folsom Prison Blues.”   His daily work had Cash listening in to various Cold War-era Soviet missives. In March 1953‚ he became the first American to learn of Joseph Stalin’s death. He relayed the message to his superiors‚ who directly informed President Eisenhower. After about four years in the Air Force‚ Cash was honorably discharged at the rank of Staff Sergeant.   2. He was a Prankster Cash (center) with Luther Perkins (left) and Marshall Grant (right) in 1955. Source: Johnny Cash Official Site   In his younger days in particular‚ Cash enjoyed playing pranks on others‚ even strangers. He and his bandmates‚ Luther Perkins and Marshall Grant‚ known as the Tennessee Two (they would later become the Tennessee Three when drummer W.S. Holland joined the group in 1960)‚ were known to wreak havoc when they got a wild hair. They would throw lit cherry bombs down hotel toilets‚ for instance.   However‚ while staying at a hotel in Omaha‚ Nebraska in the late ’50s‚ they got really creative. The three men went to a local hatchery and purchased 500 day-old chicks. They returned to the hotel and set 100 chicks free on each of its five floors.   3. Cash Believed His Brother Was Murdered A childhood picture of Johnny Cash (left) and his older brother Jack (right) and adult Cash (far right). Source: AP via Rolling Stone   When Cash was only 12 years old‚ his beloved brother Jack‚ two years his senior‚ was killed in a gruesome table saw accident at his job at the local high school woodshop. Someone had removed the guard from the saw‚ and Jack was not able to get out of the way when a piece of wood got caught in the machine and was pulled in. He was cut from stomach to groin. Though he managed to survive for about a week after the accident‚ he would succumb to his wounds. Jack’s death deeply affected his younger brother.   A contemplative Cash. Source: The Michael Ochs Archive via The New Yorker   Cash felt a great deal of guilt and blame after the accident and felt as if his father wished it had been him who died instead of his older brother. In a 1995 interview‚ he floated a theory that the death was not an accident but a murder. He spoke of a neighbor who was working with Jack at the shop that day who seemed to disappear after the accident. The guard being removed from the saw also seemed suspicious to Cash‚ though his daughter Kathy has suggested that the speculation of murder may have been a coping mechanism for her father to deal with his loss.   4. He Was an Addict A 1965 mugshot. Source: Salem Books via Fox News   As Cash’s music career started taking off in the late 50’s‚ he started a long affair with amphetamines and barbiturates and overused alcohol. As he was once quoted as saying‚ “I was taking the pills for a while‚ and then the pills started taking me.”   Amphetamines were a commonly abused drug among performers in those days who were dealing with long days of traveling and performing‚ and Cash was not immune to the temptation.   Cash’s addictions contributed to the destruction of his first marriage to Vivian Liberto. Source: Rolling Stone   His addiction led to mood swings and erratic behavior‚ causing problems with those he worked with. His familial relationships and first marriage suffered as a result of his drug use. He was arrested multiple times‚ including in one attempt where he tried to smuggle over 600 amphetamine pills and 500 tranquilizers over the US-Mexico border. Cash was in and out of rehab several times over the year‚ with his first attempts to stay clean starting in the 70s. Eventually‚ he conquered his demons and remained sober. He credited religion as playing a large role in his recovery.   5. He Was Once Attacked by an Ostrich Cash outside of his Hendersonville‚ TN property in 1969. Source: Huffington Post   On his sprawling property just outside of Nashville‚ Tennessee‚ which he affectionately called the “House of Cash‚” Johnny and his family had a lot going on. Not only did they make their home there‚ but it was the location of a museum‚ recording studio‚ and a farm. Cash enjoyed animals‚ particularly exotic ones‚ and had amassed a beautiful collection by 1981.   Part of his menagerie included a pair of ostriches. Unfortunately‚ the female ostrich passed away that winter when she refused to come inside out of the elements. This left her mate‚ Waldo‚ alone. Waldo had never been any trouble but grew more ornery in his loneliness. One day‚ Cash was walking through his compound when Waldo crouched in front of him‚ hissing and spreading his wings in a sign of aggression. Cash managed to get by but was concerned Waldo would continue to cause trouble‚ so he armed himself with a stick for his return walk.   Photograph of an ostrich. Source: Field Ethos   Waldo recommenced his attack and charged. When Cash swung at him with the stick‚ he missed. The ostrich leaped into the air and kicked Cash in the stomach. The force of the kick knocked Cash to the ground. Two of his ribs broke from the kick‚ and three more from the impact of hitting the ground. Waldo’s large talons cut Cash’s stomach clean open‚ stopped only by the large belt buckle Cash was wearing.   Waldo kept coming‚ and Cash had no choice but to keep defending himself. He finally got a swift hit to Waldo’s legs that enabled him to get to safety and the hospital. Cash was quite embarrassed by the incident when it leaked to the local media‚ believing it “sounded so dumb.” After his recovery‚ Cash rehomed Waldo to a zoo where he would still receive proper care‚ but hopefully be unable to attack anyone.   6. Cash Was Arrested for Picking Flowers Cash was no stranger to the prison system‚ whether he was part of it or performing in it. Source: Johnny Cash Trail   Cash found himself on the wrong side of the law more than once‚ usually for charges relating to his drug or alcohol use. Although he was arrested seven times throughout his life‚ perhaps one of the more curious events was when he was arrested for picking flowers in Starkville‚ Mississippi in 1965. Though the actual charge reads that the arrest was for trespassing‚ Cash always maintained that the arrest was for picking flowers‚ as he was walking from his motel to a grocery store after a gig at Mississippi State University: “Anyway‚ I reached down and picked a dandelion here and daisy there as I went along…”   A marker was added to the Country Music Trail commemorating Cash’s time in Starkville. Source: WCBI photo via WLBT   A police officer pulled up and demanded he get into his cruiser. He was fined $36 and spent the night in jail. Cash later wrote a song about the experience entitled “Starkville City Jail.” In 2007‚ the city pardoned Cash in a ceremonial event on the University campus as they held the “Johnny Cash Flower Pickin’ Festival.”   7. Cash Survived a 12-Day Coma Cash in Jamaica in 2002. Source: Wire Image via Rolling Stone   Cash suffered a number of health problems‚ especially in his advanced age. In 1993‚ he had diabetes and contracted pneumonia numerous times. While in the hospital‚ complications led him to go into a coma that lasted for 12 days. Doctors feared that the 61-year-old Cash would not recover. However‚ he did and went on to make music for another ten years before passing away in September 2003.   8. He was an Ordained Minister Cash visiting Jerusalem in 1977. Source: Jerusalem Post via Tablet Magazine   Despite his hard living‚ Cash remained a committed Christian‚ going all the way back to his roots. His mother ignited a love of music in him with gospel tunes. His dedication to religion was reignited as he worked to get sober later in life. He began studying theology more enthusiastically in the late 1980s and became an ordained minister.   9. There is a Spider Named After Him Aphonopema johnnycashi‚ female (left) and male (right). Source: Hamilton et al. via Sci News   Johnny Cash has a species of tarantula named after him. In 2016‚ scientists wrapped up a ten-year study that evaluated and reclassified tarantula species‚ resulting in 14 new species that were in need of names. One was a hairy black spider that was prevalent near Folsom State Prison in California. With the tarantula’s all-black attire and location next to one of Cash’s most famous venues‚ scientists thought its new name was a no-brainer: Aphonopema johnnycashi. It is‚ so far‚ the only species named after a celebrity.   10. Music as a Platform Cash touring Wounded Knee in 1968 with descendants of massacre survivors. Source: Salon   Johnny Cash used his popular music as a platform to take a stand as an activist in relation to a number of causes. For example‚ he used his songs to bring attention to the inequities and mistreatment of Native Americans‚ releasing Bitter Tears: Ballads of the American Indian in 1964.   He also used his prison performances to bring attention to prison reform and humanize those who were incarcerated. Cash even testified at a US Senate judiciary subcommittee hearing on prison reform in 1972 and performed benefit concerts to raise money to build a school at the Lakota’s Rosebud Reservation.

  With its origins in India more than 2‚500 years ago‚ Buddhism has profoundly influenced religion and philosophy across Asia. Siddhartha Gautama‚ also known as the Buddha‚ was the historical figure who founded Buddhism; after his passing around 483 BCE‚ his teachings became the fundamental principles of Buddhism. Over time‚ Buddhism diverged into various branches‚ each embracing its own unique approach to these teachings. This article will delve into four primary sects: Theravada‚ Mahayana‚ Zen‚ and Vajrayana. Each sect offers a distinct path to enlightenment.   What Do the Schools Have in Common&;#63;  Head of Buddha‚ Ming dynasty‚ ca. 1500‚ Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   The earliest schools of Buddhism started as sanghas (communities). As Buddhism expanded‚ these Sanghas were formed in different regions and cultures. This regional divide led to varying interpretations of the early Buddhist texts and oral transmissions and these differences naturally created divisions within the faith which ultimately resulted in the emergence of distinct Buddhist schools with their own unique practices.   While each school has its own specific practices‚ they all share common foundations‚ adhering to the four noble truths‚ the eightfold path‚ and the belief in the cycle of karma and rebirth. The teachings at the core of all Buddhist schools‚ known as the four noble truths‚ serve as the foundation for understanding Buddhist ideals and the path to liberation from suffering. The Four Noble Truths in Buddhism explain the nature of suffering (Dukkha)‚ its cause (Samudaya)‚ the possibility of its cessation (Nirodha)‚ and the path to overcoming it (Noble Eightfold Path).   The Historical Buddha Preaching‚ a section from The Illustrated Sutra of Past and Present Karma (Kako genzai inga kyō emaki)‚ Nara period (710–794)‚ Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Eightfold Path is a set of the eight correct practices of perception‚ resolve‚ speech‚ livelihood‚ effort‚ mindfulness‚ and samadhi. By acknowledging that life is suffering‚ relinquishing attachment and craving‚ and embracing the teachings of Buddha‚ the Buddhist practitioner can then embark on the journey toward liberation.   The concept of Karma is another fundamental belief in all Buddhist schools. Karma can essentially be described as the connection between actions and consequences. It is not a form of divine justice or punishment but rather a natural law similar to cause and effect. In Buddhist teachings‚ reincarnation is a core belief that explains the continuation of consciousness after death. It is not viewed as a soul or self‚ but rather a continuous flow of energy and experiences known as Samsara. The type of rebirth one attains is determined by their accumulated karma‚ with positive actions leading to a higher realm and negative actions leading to lower realms.   1. Theravada Monks pass shop window‚ by conceptphoto.info‚ Source: Flikr   Theravada‚ literally meaning “Way of the Elders‚” is widely credited with being the earliest form of Buddhism and is believed to be the closest of the sects to Siddhartha Gautama’s original teachings. Theravadins believe that enlightenment can only be attained by closely following the historical Buddha’s path and as such‚ place importance on the earliest Buddhist texts‚ known as the Pali canon. Salvation is limited to only those who follow a monastic approach to Buddhism and is obtained by the practitioner’s own merit. In this way‚ Nirvana can be achieved through an individual journey of practice‚ reflection‚ and self-realization.   These ancient practices are the foundation for many modern-day mindfulness meditation techniques. Theravada is seen as conservative in comparison to other sects as it is more analytical and less ritualized‚ and the teachings focus solely on the historical Buddha. Theravada Buddhism recognizes past incarnations of the historical Buddha but not contemporary buddhas nor much of the large pantheon of bodhisattvas and deities acknowledged within the other schools of thought. The leading school of Buddhism‚ Theravada is mostly practiced in Sri Lanka‚ Burma‚ Thailand‚ Laos‚ and Cambodia where the majority of the population is Buddhist.   The Arhat Two Arthats‚ Korean‚ Joseon dynasty‚ Source: Google Arts &; Culture   When a Theravadin gains insight into the true nature of reality they become what is known as an “Arhat” and are thus liberated from the cycle of samsara (life‚ death‚ and rebirth). An arhat is a devoted follower of Buddha who achieves enlightenment through profound contemplation of his teachings. By fully comprehending the Four Noble Truths and The Eightfold Path‚ they attain awakening‚ a state typically pursued through a monastic path. Each school of Buddhism has a slightly different relationship with the arhat. In Mahayana Buddhist schools‚ the arhats are respected but usually considered as being one step before reaching the ultimate position on the Buddhist spiritual path; for them‚ the goal is to become a Bodhisattva.   For the Theravadins‚ becoming an arhat is the ultimate goal. The arhat has an ancient history predating Buddhism‚ and this is why sometimes in art or literature the arhat is portrayed with mystical or eccentric aspects‚ although the Theravada tradition does not recognize the Arhat as esoteric.   2. Mahayana Monk with Flowing Robes‚ by Adam Brill‚ Source: Flickr   Mahayana or “great vehicle” has a wider interpretation of what constitutes teachings from the Buddha and incorporates doctrine and text that are not recognized by the Theravada tradition and whose core is the Pali Canon. The Mahayana branch of Buddhism focuses less on individual salvation and more on the liberation of all sentient beings‚ and in this way‚ Mahayana can be seen as a more inclusive school of Buddhism.   Mahayana practitioners‚ with the objective of enlightening many‚ strive to become bodhisattvas. Bodhisattvas are enlightened individuals who are close to Buddhahood but choose to delay entering nirvana in order to help others also reach enlightenment‚ and for this reason‚ bodhisattvas play an integral role in the Mahayana tradition.   The Bodhisattva The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara Expounding the Dharma to a Devotee‚ from a folio from Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra Manuscript‚ 12th century‚ Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art   In order to become a bodhisattva‚ the Mahayana practitioner must cultivate compassion which is a feeling that when meditated on and mastered is believed to lead one on the path to seeing the ultimate truth of reality. Mahayana believes that this enlightened quality‚ which is free from illusion‚ resides in all sentient beings and is called “Buddha Nature.” The main idea of this philosophy is to access an innate ineffable wisdom that is free from cultural and personal variations.   Mahayana believe in a more complex pantheon of buddhas and bodhisattvas than the Theravada tradition. There are many Buddhas‚ not just Siddhartha Gautama and these Buddhas exist in different realities. Mahayana is practiced in China‚ Korea‚ Vietnam‚ and Japan. The country with the largest Buddhist population is China although Buddhists still make a relatively small percentage within the overall population.   3. Vajrayana Buddha Vajradhara‚ 15th century‚ Source: The Philadelphia Museum of Art   Vajrayana‚ which means “diamond vehicle‚” is the most mystical branch of Buddhism and originally evolved from the Mahayana tradition. While Vajrayana has its roots in ancient Indian tantra‚ it found its stronghold in the Himalayas‚ particularly Tibet. The primary goal of Vajrayana is to guide practitioners toward enlightenment within a single lifetime. This expedited path to enlightenment can be perceived as intense‚ which is why the transmission of Vajrayana knowledge to new practitioners is entrusted solely to established teachers or gurus. Through the use of ritual initiations‚ visualization techniques‚ exercises‚ and mantras‚ Vajrayana equips practitioners with the tools to liberate themselves from the confines of self and ascend to their innate buddha nature.   People of Tibet‚ photo by Pedro-Szekely‚ Source: Flickr   The mystical essence of tantra can be traced back to ancient esoteric traditions that predate the origins of Buddhism. Tantric Buddhism was inspired by and emerged from ancient Indian tantra texts‚ Shaivism‚ and Yogins. Although modern-day yoga in the West draws loose inspiration from these early tantric disciplines‚ it has evolved in a distinct and separate manner. This branch of Buddhism is commonly referred to as Tibetan Buddhism due to its predominant influence in Tibet. Vajrayana is also practiced in Nepal‚ Mongolia‚ Bhutan‚ India‚ China‚ and Japan.   4. Zen  Ensō‚ by Taidō ShÅ«fÅ«‚19th century‚ Japan‚ Source: Museum Institute Chicago   Zen‚ also referred to as Chan in Chinese‚ is a school that originated from the Mahayana Buddhist tradition in China during the Tang Dynasty. It is believed that Chan was brought to China by Bodhidharma‚ a legendary Buddhist monk of Indian descent‚ who traveled there and eventually settled. By the 7th century‚ Chinese Buddhist missionaries had introduced Chan to Japan‚ where it became known as Zen.   Although Zen Buddhism had much earlier roots‚ it only gained widespread recognition during the 12th century. The Zen sect distinguishes itself from other Buddhist schools through its emphasis on meditation‚ known as zazen‚ which lies at the heart of all Zen Buddhist philosophies. Practitioners believe that meditation leads to self-discovery and enlightenment. In essence‚ Zen and meditation are inseparable.   Samurai with raised sword‚ by Felice Beato‚ 1863‚ Source: The Getty Museum   Zen Buddhism has captivated the world for centuries. It influenced various aspects of Japanese heritage‚ particularly the samurai and their code of honor known as “bushido.” Zen principles also manifested in artistic practices such as calligraphy‚ ink painting‚ pottery‚ music‚ and gardening. The tea ceremony‚ known as “chanoyu‚” became an important meditative ritual and practice of etiquette. Monks embraced drinking tea to stay alert during long meditation sessions‚ and this practice evolved into a ceremonial homage to Bodhidharma‚ the first patriarch of Zen.

  The Picasso exhibition in the Soviet Union represents one of the central events and enduring memories of the thawing relations between East and West during the Cold War era. The exhibition coincided with turbulent events within the Soviet Union: mass student protests and the Hungarian revolution. Thus‚ Picasso and his art became symbols of political upheaval and freedom.   The successful completion of the Picasso exhibition was only possible because of Picasso’s commitment to communism after joining the French Communist Party in 1944. Picasso was widely referred to as “the most famous communist in the world after Stalin and Mao Zedong.”   Picasso &; Communism Before the 1956 Picasso Exhibition Picasso Room in Shchukin’s house. Source: Russia Beyond   Pablo Picasso was closely associated with both communism and Russia even before the Picasso Exhibition of 1956 in Moscow.   In 1908‚ famous French artist Henri Matisse visited Picasso’s Montmartre studio in Paris‚ France‚ with a Russian art buyer‚ Sergei Shchukin. Shchukin purchased two paintings (one of which was Queen Isabea) and compensated the artist generously. Shchukin and Picasso became close partners‚ and over the course of the next six years‚ the Russian philanthropist acquired more than 50 of Picasso’s artworks‚ including Woman with a Fan and The Absinthe Drinker.   Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917‚ Picasso’s two distinguished works‚ Girl on a Ball and Harlequin and His Companion‚ were acquired by Ivan Morozov‚ another well-known Russian art collector.   The collections of Shchukin and Morozov were nationalized by the Bolsheviks after the Revolution. Picasso’s artworks were placed in a newly established Museum of New Western Art. The museum functioned until 1948 when it was dissolved‚ and the collections were redistributed between the Pushkin and the Hermitage Museums.   Pablo Picasso as he created a light drawing by Gjon Mili‚ 1949. Source: The Life   In 1944‚ Pablo Picasso became a member of the Communist Party of France. His decision was an act of protest against the developments in Picasso’s native Spain. The Spanish Civil War and the establishment of General Franco’s fascist dictatorship by forceful measures were in contradiction with Picasso’s anti-military and anti-fascist beliefs. Picasso remained in the communist party for the rest of his life. Once he became a communist‚ the artist was commonly referred to as “Comrade Pablo.”   This period also marked the formation of a close friendship between Pablo Picasso and prominent Soviet writer‚ journalist‚ and historian Ilya Ehrenburg. Ehrenburg was one of the founders of the International Peace Movement‚ established in 1948. Ehrenburg attempted to break the Soviet Union’s grip on Soviet authors and artists while also introducing modern Western art to the Soviet population. He served as a cultural link between the post-World War II West and the Soviet Union. In this context‚ he undertook the responsibility of promoting the peace movement in 1949. Picasso joined the cause and created the well-known “dove” emblem of peace.   Dove by Pablo Picasso‚ 1949. Source: Tate‚ London   After Stalin’s death on March 5‚ 1953‚ Louis Aragon‚ the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Les Lettres Fran&;ccedil;aises‚ commissioned Pablo Picasso to create a painting of Joseph Stalin. The French Communist Party felt offended when Picasso unveiled a portrait of a young Stalin inspired by an old photo of him (see portrait in the following section). The portrait did not suit the traditional stereotype of Stalin as “the father of the people.” Louis Aragon remarked‚ “Stalin cannot be invented.”   After Stalin’s death‚ Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the Soviet Union. Aiming to distance himself from Stalin’s regime‚ Khrushchev embarked on establishing a new form of Soviet governance that was socio-politically and culturally more liberating. Ilya Ehrenburg referred to this shift in Soviet ideology as the “Thaw” and published his famous novel with the same name in the spring of 1954 in the issue of Novy Mir.   As part of Khrushchev Thaw and subsequent rapprochement policy with the West‚ Ehrenburg was instrumental in organizing the first Picasso exhibition at the Pushkin Museum of Fine Art in Moscow‚ Russia‚ on October 16‚ 1956.   The Picasso Exhibition at the Pushkin Museum Cover of Les Lettres Fran&;ccedil;aises‚ featuring Portrait of Stalin by Pablo Picasso‚ 1953. Source: Espionart   In 1956‚ Ehrenburg suggested to the Soviet Union’s Central Committee to hold the Picasso exhibition in Moscow as a way to honor a dedicated international communism advocate for his seventy-fifth birthday.   In 1955‚ as part of the cultural exchange between East and West‚ Picasso’s exhibition was held in East Germany at the National Gallery in East Berlin. Later‚ in 1956‚ Picasso’s works were exhibited at the National Art Museum in the People’s Republic of China. Works of Pablo Picasso often resembled the themes of anti-fascism and social justice and thus resonated with the ideology of communist countries. Following the Cuban Revolution‚ Pablo Picasso’s works were also later exhibited in Cuba in 1959‚ symbolizing political upheavals and revolutionary ideas.   At first‚ the Central Committee declined Ehrenburg’s suggestion. But shortly after‚ at the 20th Party Congress‚ Nikita Khrushchev delivered his “Secret Speech‚” criticizing Stalin and introducing relatively liberal internal and exterior policies. Influenced by Khrushchev’s decisions‚ the Committee agreed to hold the exhibition‚ albeit with limited media coverage and a relatively small collection to limit its impact.   Portrait of Ilya Ehrenburg by Pablo Picasso‚ 1948. Source: Nigel Hall   However‚ Pablo Picasso was not content with this decision. He envisioned the exhibition as an opportunity to make up for his 1951 loss in Korea‚ as his work‚ Massacre in Korea‚ did not triumph‚ particularly within the French Communist Party. Pablo Picasso personally selected 38 of his artworks‚ including ceramics‚ illustrating the diversity of his work from the 1920s to the 1950s‚ to be exhibited in two separate museums: the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the Hermitage in Leningrad (Saint Petersburg today).   The Pushkin Museum presented Picasso’s Young Acrobat on a Ball‚ Family of Saltimbanques‚ Head of an Old Man in Tiara‚ and Still Life with Violin.   The Hermitage presented Picasso’s earlier and larger works from his “Blue Period.” It included The Absinthe Drinker‚ The Two Sisters‚ Portrait of Soler the Tailor‚ and Woman with a Scarf‚ as well as Dance of the Veils‚ Clarinet and Violin‚ Bowl of Fruit with Bunch of Grapes and Sliced Pear‚ Three Women‚ Woman with a Fan‚ Maternity and Seated Woman with a Book‚ and Musical Instruments.   Even though no advertisement campaign took place in preparation for the Picasso Exhibition‚ hundreds of people flocked to the museum with great enthusiasm. Not only was it a rare opportunity to explore modern Western art‚ but it was also a place to engage in a lively public discussion on art‚ culture‚ and politics—everything the Khrushchev Thaw promised.   Influence of the Picasso Exhibition  Massacre in Korea by Pablo Picasso‚ 1951. Source: Museu Picasso‚ Barcelona   The influence of the Picasso Exhibition can be understood within the wider social context of uncertainty about the effects of the Khrushchev Thaw and subsequent socio-political turbulences in the Soviet Union.   By the time the Picasso Exhibition opened in Moscow‚ Khrushchev’s policies of de-Stalinization had triggered waves of liberation movements across the Soviet Union. On October 23‚ 1956‚ an uprising against Soviet rule began in Hungary and galvanized broader public support in opposition to communist rule in Poland in November. Both attempts at freedom were violently suppressed by the Soviet government‚ yet they made the Picasso exhibition the center of public unrest. The Soviet leadership feared that the exposure to Picasso’s artwork and subsequent public discourse could go beyond art and culture and transform into a political issue.   Simultaneously with the opening of the Picasso Exhibition in Moscow‚ protesters in Warsaw‚ Poland‚ displayed a replica of Picasso’s painting Massacre In Korea at the Academy of Arts‚ a symbolic gesture of support for the Hungarian Uprising. Even though Picasso’s initial purpose of the Massacre In Korea was to oppose United States imperialism‚ Polish protesters presented the artwork in an anti-communist context‚ making communist leaders further question the rightfulness of opening the Iron Curtain to Picasso.   The implications of Picasso’s exhibition became particularly concerning when it moved to the Hermitage. The Central Committee’s Culture Department reported students engaging in politically dangerous debates on artistic freedom while criticizing Soviet art and its Socialist Realism style.   The Face of Peace by Pablo Picasso‚ 1951. Source: Picasso Celebracion   On December 21‚ students attempted to organize an unofficial public discussion in Leningrad. During a three-day conference titled “The Future of Soviet Art‚” the Soviet Academy of Arts was criticized and called a “feudal institution.” Collectivization was denounced as an instrument of Soviet repression. The Committee for State Security (KGB) feared that Picasso and his works were fueling an unhealthy political mood‚ triggering a “little Budapest” in Leningrad. Unsurprisingly‚ the Soviet authorities suppressed the students’ conference and arrested several participants.   Nevertheless‚ Pablo Picasso managed to save himself and his works from the Soviet regime. In 1962‚ he was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize as a “crusader for peace.” Ilya Ehrenburg‚ who had been instrumental in making the Picasso Exhibition a reality in the Soviet Union‚ visited Mougins‚ France‚ to personally hand over the prize. Picasso‚ however‚ refused it. In the following years‚ Picasso’s exhibitions were held several times in the Soviet Union: in 1966‚ 1971‚ and 1988 at the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts; in 1982 at the State Hermitage Museum in Leningrad; in 1990 at the Ukrainian National Art Museum in Kyiv‚ and in 1991 in Moscow‚ prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.   Despite the Soviet leadership’s attempts to curtail Picasso’s influence on the socio-political climate of the communist world‚ Picasso’s works were hailed as “the radiance of real art” that would “break through all obstacles” within the Soviet Union. As American historian Eleonory Gilburd noted‚ “At the heart was Soviet art—society—while Picasso was a name metaphor for everything Soviet society was not.”

  In 1955‚ the non-aligned foreign policy was born at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia. The newly independent Asian and African states declared decolonization as their primary foreign policy course. By refusing to align themselves with either of the two superpowers — the United States-led Western bloc and the Soviet Union-led Eastern bloc —non-aligned states tried to maintain their sovereignty. The leaders of Egypt‚ Ghana‚ India‚ Indonesia‚ and Yugoslavia emerged as prominent figures in promoting non-alignment. The Non-Aligned Movement was founded in 1961 at the Belgrade conference in Yugoslavia.   Origins of Non-Alignment During the Cold War Cartoon referring to efforts by the Soviet Union and the United States to win friends during the Cold War‚ 1955. Source: National Library of Wales   Non-alignment as a foreign policy approach originated following the end of World War II‚ the subsequent wave of decolonization‚ and the start of the Cold War.   World War II changed the international environment and encouraged colonies around the world to pursue self-determination. As a result‚ the Asian and African colonies of European colonial powers achieved long-awaited sovereignty and independence between 1945 and 1960.   The period also marked the beginning of the Cold War‚ an intense confrontation for supremacy on the global stage between the two superpowers‚ the Soviet Union and the United States. The Cold War was characterized by the rapid bipolarization of the countries around these two superpowers and their blocs‚ trying to pull states into their spheres of influence. The Soviet Union-dominated bloc was known as the Warsaw Pact‚ and the United States-dominated bloc was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization‚ NATO.   The term “non-alignment” was first used by Indian diplomat V. K. Krishna Menon at the United Nations in 1953. Menon was referring to the new foreign policy approach‚ according to which India refused to side with any political or military alliances involved in the Korean War of 1950–1953.   Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ Ethiopian delegate Yilma Deressa‚ the Gold Coast’s Kojo Botsio‚ and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (from left to right) attended the Bandung Conference‚ 1955. Source: Zocalo   The first attempt to formalize the non-alignment approach was at the Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference) held in Indonesia from April 18 to 24‚ 1955. The newly established governments of Burma‚ India‚ Indonesia‚ Pakistan‚ and Sri Lanka sponsored and organized the conference.   A tangible result of the Bandung Conference was a communiqu&;eacute; signed by all 29 representatives of mainly Asian and African countries. The document outlined the objectives of the non-aligned states: the support of cultural and economic cooperation‚ safeguarding the principle of self-determination‚ and protection of human rights‚ including the abolition of racial discrimination. These objectives intended to encourage cooperation among emerging nations by helping them navigate the complex international environment of the Cold War.   The Bandung Conference laid the foundation for establishing the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The idea of the Non-Aligned Movement further developed during the meeting of the non-aligned states on the Brijuni Islands in July 1956. Yugoslavia’s president‚ Josip Broz Tito‚ India’s prime minister‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ and Egypt’s president‚ Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ defined the movement by signing the Declaration of Brijuni on July 19 of the same year.   The declaration read:   “Peace cannot be achieved with separation‚ but with the aspiration towards collective security in global terms and the expansion of freedom‚ as well as terminating the domination of one country over another.”   The Principles of Non-Alignment Jawaharlal Nehru with Zhou Enlai in Beijing on October 19‚ 1954. Source: The Hindu   The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence‚ also known as Panchsheel (Five Restraints)‚ represents the base of the non-aligned foreign policy approach. The Panchsheel was first introduced by India’s Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in October 1954 at an official meeting in Colombo‚ Sri Lanka. These principles were intended to guide emerging Sino-Indian relations.   The five principles were the following:   Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; Mutual non-aggression; Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs; Equality and mutual benefit; Peaceful co-existence.   The Five Principles were modified during the Bandung Conference. Based on the Panchsheel‚ the conference adopted a “Declaration on Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation.” The declaration outlined ten principles of the non-alignment policy‚ also known as the “Ten Principles of Bandung.”   Two Worlds‚ 1950. Source: acc. Phillips   These principles entailed the following:   Respecting and defending the fundamental principles of human rights and the Charter of the United Nations; Safeguarding the territorial integrity and independence of all nations; Acknowledgment of the equality of all races and nations‚ regardless of size; Not interfering in another state’s domestic issues; Supporting the state’s right to self-defense in accordance with the United Nations Charter; Refusing to join the collective defense organizations in support of either one of the superpowers; Abstaining from military intervention against the territorial integrity or political stability of any state; Supporting the resolution of conflicts through peaceful means‚ in compliance with the Charter of the United Nations; Encouraging collaboration among all nations; Respecting international law and subsequent obligations.   Adherence to these principles was deemed necessary to become a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and is often referred to as the “quintessence of the movement.”   In the context of Cold War power struggles‚ these principles restricted signing military agreements or joining multilateral military alliances such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The principles cemented the perception that newly independent and non-aligned nations would remain weak‚ silent‚ and neutral in international affairs. Contrary to this assessment‚ the stated objectives of the non-alignment policy were to give developing nations a voice‚ particularly at the United Nations‚ and to help shape world politics by assisting them in choosing a middle path in the West-East confrontation.   The First Summit Conference of Belgrade &; the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries (NAM) Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the first Non-Aligned Summit Conference in Belgrade‚ 1961. Source: The Hindu   In 1960‚ the Fifteenth Ordinary Session of the United Nations General Assembly admitted 17 new members from Africa and Asia to the United Nations. The event gave a decisive boost to the development of the non-alignment policy.   From September 1 to 6‚ 1961‚ the First Summit Conference of Belgrade was held‚ also known as the Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries. Representatives of 25 states attended the conference. Afghanistan‚ Algeria‚ Yemen‚ Myanmar‚ Cambodia‚ Sri Lanka‚ Congo‚ Cuba‚ Cyprus‚ Egypt‚ Ethiopia‚ Ghana‚ Guinea‚ India‚ Indonesia‚ and Iraq represent the official founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).   NAM was declared a movement‚ not an organization‚ as its founding members strived to free themselves from the bureaucratic implications of the organizational agencies. The movement was intended to reflect the interests of each member in international politics without compromising their own independence and sovereignty.   Until the early 1970s‚ NAM was mainly focused on supporting decolonization processes‚ navigating Cold War tensions‚ promoting disarmament‚ particularly nuclear arms control‚ and safeguarding human rights.   International organizations‚ especially the United Nations‚ provided an essential platform for promoting the self-determination of states and decolonization. The movement’s founders spoke up to defend the rights of colonized peoples and denounced the colonial powers’ continued presence in impacted areas. These efforts resulted in the United Nations Resolution 1514‚ widely known as the “Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples‚” adopted in 1960. Non-aligned states actively participated in drafting and then adopting the resolution‚ which reaffirmed the right to self-determination and urged international society to speed up the decolonization processes.   Hall for plenary sessions on the opening day of the Conference of Non-Aligned Movement‚ 1961. Source: DAI Roaming Academy   As part of NAM’s support for decolonization‚ its members expressed solidarity with the national liberation movements of colonized nations‚ particularly in Africa‚ Asia‚ and the Middle East. The members of the movement provided political and diplomatic assistance to struggling nations and promoted the peaceful resolution of conflicts by offering their states a platform for dialogue. NAM also advocated for the diplomatic recognition of the newly independent states by international organizations.   India‚ for example‚ had greatly contributed to the African National Congress in South Asia by building strong diplomatic relations and hosting its leaders in India. Egypt‚ like India‚ assisted the National Liberation Movement of Algeria politically and militarily.   Beginning in the 1970s‚ the Non-Aligned Movement changed its focus from political to economic. Their agenda viewed the existing world economic order as subordinating poor‚ developing nations. During this period‚ the Dependency Theory gained momentum. According to the theory‚ economic growth in leading countries was not accompanied by development in poorer countries. Furthermore‚ the economic activity of wealthy nations frequently caused severe economic issues in the developing world.   To address the issue‚ the non-aligned countries endorsed the so-called New International Economic Order. It called for modifying established trade patterns and introducing improved terms of trade for developed countries‚ including encouraging developing nations to diversify their economies and integrate into regional trade unions‚ lowering trade tariffs‚ and promoting free trade. As a result‚ the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration for the Establishment of a New International Economic Order and its accompanying program of action on May 1‚ 1974.   Challenges of Non-Alignment During the Cold War The 18th Summit of Heads of State and Government of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ 2019. Source: President of the Republic of Azerbaijan   An international arena characterized by rivalry and bipolarity presented the non-aligned nations with persistent challenges. To some degree‚ the non-alignment offered newly independent nations a more flexible course of action and the possibility to bargain for better socio-economic incentives through security guarantees. Even though their stated goal was to maintain independence during the Cold War‚ the dominant powers of the United States and the Soviet Union pressured them to be aligned with their respective blocs.   The means were often in the form of economic incentives‚ military aid‚ and diplomatic and political manipulations‚ including offering favorable trade conditions‚ diplomatic recognition‚ or security guarantees. In many cases‚ these attempts proved successful‚ as many of the newly independent‚ non-aligned states faced internal and regional challenges and lacked adequate resources to cope with these issues independently.   The Sino-Indian War of 1962‚ which occurred just a year after the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ represents the first significant challenge to the movement. The Indian Prime Minister‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ one of the key figures in the movement‚ turned to the United States for diplomatic and financial assistance.   Anwar El-Sadat‚ Egypt’s newly elected president‚ abruptly turned away from the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1970s and instituted the Infitah Policy‚ also known as Sadat’s Open Door Policy. It signaled the beginning of a new strategic alliance with the United States.   Other notable examples are the second India-Pakistan conflict in 1965 and the June War of 1967 between Israel and its neighboring states‚ where Egypt was a key belligerent of the conflict. The Iran-Iraq War during 1980-1988 culminated in the United States entering Iraq. These challenges had deeply shaken the unity of the movement.   Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito (right) with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser (left) and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru‚ 1956. Source: Radio Free Europe   Nevertheless‚ non-alignment during the Cold War managed to positively influence the decolonization processes‚ supported human rights and the development of more inclusive international law through the United Nations‚ advocated for the equality of newly independent states‚ and provided a platform of discussion for the states with different socio-political and cultural backgrounds.

  With Germany’s unconditional surrender on May 7‚ 1945‚ many influential Nazis were arrested. The Allies set up the International Military Tribunal (IMT) as discussed during wartime meetings. The main powers nominated a judge and a deputy to conduct the trials. In an ironic twist‚ the Allies decided to hold the trials in Nuremberg‚ the center of Nazi ideology. The charges included crimes against humanity‚ against peace‚ and conspiracy. The Nuremberg Trial defendants numbered in the hundreds. Twelve of the worst were hung. To confirm their deaths‚ the Allies cremated the remains‚ scattering the ashes. The Nuremberg Trials began in November 1945‚ with two dozen of the most hardened Nazis being arraigned. The following Nazis were the most insidious.    Herman Goering Goering on Trial Source: U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum   The pompous Herman Goering‚ former head of the Luftwaffe and Hitler’s one-time heir‚ pleaded he only followed orders. As early as 1939‚ Goering knew exterminating Jews would soon start. In 1942‚ following Hitler’s orders‚ he had the SS begin the plan that became the Holocaust. As the Wehrmacht occupied countries‚ Goering plundered rare treasures for himself. The IMT found him guilty‚ sentencing him to death. But Goering cheated the hangman the night before his execution‚ killing himself with poison smuggled into his cell.    Wilhelm Keitel Keitel’s signature Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wilhelm Keitel‚ Chief of the German High Command‚ unlike Goering‚ was executed. Hitler appointed the Great War veteran in 1938. Known as Hitler’s “yes” man‚ Keitel never left the Fuhrer’s inner circle‚ participating in crucial decisions. Fateful orders that earned him his fate included orders to shoot captured commandos‚ signing decrees‚ and urging Army commanders to be harsh in their reprisals. Evidence used against him was many copies of his signed orders. Keitel pleaded that he‚ too‚ only followed orders like Goering.   Arthur Seyss-Inquart Arthur Seyss-Inquart on trial. Source: Alchetron   Nazi government officials likewise faced consequences for their actions. Arthur Seyss-Inquart‚ one of two Austrian defendants‚ came to power just before Germany’s 1938 annexation of Austria. He assisted with the assimilation. In 1939‚ Hitler appointed him the Reichskommisar (governor) of southern Poland. By 1940‚ Seyss-Inquart was again a Reichskommisar but now governed Holland until 1945. Here‚ he ruled with terror and ruthlessness. He shared involvement in deporting 120‚000 Jews to death camps‚ among them Anne Frank. Seyss-Inquart deported thousands of Dutch to Germany for forced labor. He ordered between 800-1500 Dutch executed for resistance‚ strikes‚ or as reprisals. Condemned to death during the Nuremberg Trial‚ he went to the gallows in 1946.   Rudolf Hess Hess at Nuremberg (middle) Source: PICRYL   Of all the Nazi leaders‚ the virulent anti-Semitic but enigmatic Rudolf Hess is more famous than Herman Goering. Born in Egypt‚ Hess became an Anglophile‚ admiring the British Empire. He fought in the Great War and joined the Nazi Party in 1920 as a brawler. Hess helped Hitler draft Mein Kampf‚ the Nazi Party’s ideological text‚ in 1925‚ and Hess drafted the 1935 Nuremberg Laws‚ which stripped Jews of citizenship. 1941‚ he flew to Britain‚ hoping to negotiate peace between Britain and Germany. For his crimes‚ Hess got a life sentence from the Nuremberg Trial and committed suicide in jail in 1987.   Joachin von Ribbentrop Joachin von Ribbentrop. Source: Famous People   No Nazi became more despised by his peers than Foreign Minister Joachin von Ribbentrop. A former champagne salesman‚ he added “von” to his name by marrying into a noble family. Na&;iuml;ve and haughty‚ Ribbentrop used diplomacy to encourage war or pressure neighbors to ally with Germany. He brokered the Axis agreement in 1941 and urged Japan to attack America directly. Once World War II started‚ Hitler didn’t need diplomacy‚ so Von Ribbentrop’s influence declined. He tried to keep Hitler’s attention by urging countries to deport Jews faster. For his efforts‚ Ribbentrop went first to the gallows.   Ernst Kaltenbrunner Karltenbrunner 1945 Source: Public Domain   While Nazis like Goering are well known‚ few would know Ernst Kaltenbrunner. But many feared him as he headed the RHSA‚ Nazi Germany’s security office. The RHSA administered the Third Reich’s law and security group. It also oversaw the death camp. Kaltenbrunner took over in January 1943. Easily identifiable by his height‚ deep facial scars‚ and quick temper‚ Kaltenbrunner ran the RHSA efficiently. Whether deporting Jews from occupied countries‚ arresting and executing resistance fighters‚ or checking death camp status reports‚ he knew about it. Kaltenbrunner looked to intensify all methods‚ especially regarding the “Jewish Question.”   Kaltenbrunner personally got involved twice during the war. After Italy’s 1943 surrender and the 1944 occupation of Hungary‚ he helped organize deportations of Jews‚ of which few survived. At the Nuremberg Trial‚ he claimed the now-dead Himmler was responsible‚ and that his orders were forged. He was executed in 1946.

  After World War II‚ Yugoslavia‚ Indonesia‚ and Egypt emerged as key states pursuing non-alignment policy. It intended to maintain the sovereignty of the newly independent nations by refusing to side with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Jawaharlal Nehru‚ the Indian Prime Minister‚ advocated South-South cooperation. Under Josip Broz Tito‚ Yugoslavia pursued a unique form of socialism independent of Soviet control. Indonesian leader Sukarno promoted anti-colonialism in Asia and Africa. Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ President of Egypt‚ advocated for Pan-Arabism‚ which significantly influenced Arab countries to pursue a non-aligned stance.   1. Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito in Ethiopia‚ Museum of Yugoslavia‚ 1955. Source: Pitt Rivers Museum‚ Oxford   During the Cold War‚ Yugoslavia played a significant role in initiating and shaping non-alignment. Marshal Josip Broz Tito‚ the president of Yugoslavia‚ proved crucial in the Non-Aligned Movement’s successful formation.   Unlike other non-aligned states‚ Yugoslavia’s commitment to non-alignment was not influenced by decolonization or anti-imperial aspirations. It was the result of Tito’s unique vision of an independent‚ socialist Yugoslavia‚ albeit free from Soviet rule.   Yugoslavia acquired independence after the end of World War II‚ and Tito became the leader of the ruling Yugoslav Communist Party. Unexpectedly for the Soviet Union‚ Tito embraced “Titoism” as the dominant sociopolitical ideological framework for his control over Yugoslavia.   Aiming to assert Yugoslavia’s independence and safeguard it from falling into the Soviet sphere of influence‚ Titoism envisioned a break from Stalin’s oppressive policies. It sought to implement a more humane form of socialism‚ supporting cultural diversity‚ social justice‚ and political freedom. Titoism was dictated by the fact that Yugoslavia‚ as a united state‚ consisted of six different nations with distinct socio-cultural characteristics. According to Tito‚ maintaining peace‚ independence‚ and consolidating power in this diverse environment was only possible by following the principles of Titoism. The shift of Yugoslavia’s Communist Party from Soviet policies resulted in the Cominform Resolution in 1948‚ which expelled Yugoslavia from the Cominform‚ the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers’ Parties.   Sudan‚ People gathered to welcome President Tito in Barakat‚ Museum of Yugoslavia‚ 1959. Source: Pitt Rivers Museum‚ Oxford   According to Tito‚ joining the Western bloc would also undermine Yugoslavia’s independence. Instead‚ he promoted the idea of “positive neutrality‚” which called for developing relations with both the Eastern and Western blocs while preserving their independence in external and internal affairs. Tito believed that non-alignment‚ as a newly emerging political concept‚ would enable Yugoslavia to assume a leadership role in world affairs‚ and its principle of non-interference in the affairs of other countries and non-participation in the military blocs of either the United States or the Soviet Union aligned with Titoism.   During the 1950 session of the United Nations General Assembly‚ the Foreign Minister of Yugoslavia‚ Edvard Kardeji‚ stated that “Yugoslavia cannot accept mankind choosing to be dominated by one power or another.” In a few years‚ on December 22‚ 1954‚ Tito met with the Indian Prime Minister‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ in Delhi and signed a joint agreement‚ formalizing a policy of collective peace through non-alignment. In September 1961‚ Yugoslavia hosted the first summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in the capital city of Belgrade.   Tito’s support for the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement can be seen as a possibility to “exercise their sovereign right to freely choose their internal ways and their own way of socialist development.”   During the following years‚ Yugoslavia‚ under the leadership of Tito‚ became an active member of the United Nations Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples‚ or the Special Committee on Decolonization‚ established in 1961. Within the committee‚ Yugoslavia actively called for working out recommendations on granting independence to the remaining colonies‚ especially colonies of the United Kingdom.   2. Indonesia Portrait of President Sukarno‚ 1949. Source: Leiden University Digital Collections   Indonesia represented a key state in the non-alignment during the Cold War. At the heart of the Indonesian non-alignment lies the policy of Bebas Aktif‚ established in the late 1940s. The policy dictated Indonesian commitment to the principles of independence and neutrality from competing superpower blocs‚ including abstaining from joining military alliances. The policy emerged as a result of nearly 300 years of Dutch colonial rule and Japanese occupation during World War II.   Indonesia’s strive for independence‚ which had already begun under Dutch colonial rule in the early 1940s‚ finally materialized after the end of World War II. The Indonesian independence movement‚ under the leadership of Kusno Sosrodihardjo (Sukarno) and Mohammad Hatta‚ proclaimed independence on August 17‚ 1945. The international community‚ however‚ did not directly acknowledge Indonesia’s sovereignty‚ as the Dutch government refused to recognize its former colony’s independence. The struggle for formal recognition of independence lasted until 1949. The Round Table Conference formally acknowledged Indonesia as an independent nation.   Tanjung Priok by Semsar Siahaan‚ 1992. Source: Moderna Galerija &; Museum of Contemporary Art‚ Ljubljana   The vice president of the new Republic of Indonesia‚ Mohammad Hatta‚ declared on September 2‚ 1948‚ that the main foreign policy direction of Indonesia would be non-alignment as the single most effective tool to avoid involvement in a geopolitical conflict that might disturb national development.   Based on the previous historical experience of the struggle for independence‚ President Sukarno declared that he was willing to develop and support anti-colonialism and elaborate on a framework of an independent and active foreign policy course that would complement the Indonesian national revival without foreign commitments. These developments set the stage for the creation of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ which would also assist Indonesia in obtaining much-needed international recognition.   Bung Karno in the Revolutionary War‚ Photo courtesy of Museum MACAN‚ 1966. Source: Plural Art Magazine   Indonesia was among the first countries to initiate and host one of the founding conferences of the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1955‚ the first Asian-African Conference was held in Bandung‚ Indonesia‚ widely known as the Bandung Conference. Twenty-nine participants‚ mainly newly independent states and former colonies of European empires‚ discussed the issues of decolonization‚ anti-imperialism‚ Cold War bipolarity‚ and the means to avoid alignment with one of the superpowers‚ which might have put their sovereignty at risk.   Sukarno‚ the president of Indonesia‚ was seen as a crucial actor in developing the non-alignment principles. Together with other influential leaders‚ including Jawaharlal Nehru of India‚ Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt‚ and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana‚ he actively engaged in diplomatic discussions and laid the groundwork for the Non-Alignment Movement‚ which was formally founded in September 1961 at the first NAM summit in Belgrade‚ Yugoslavia.   3. India Portrait of Jawaharlal Nehru by Yousuf Karsh‚ 1956. Source: Karsh   India’s non-alignment during the Cold War was a result of its colonial past and struggles for independence. And just like other countries‚ upon gaining independence after the end of World War II‚ India’s foreign policy was determined to be free from great power dominance‚ economic dependence‚ and political manipulations.   India‚ and particularly its charismatic leader‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ played a decisive role in formulating the founding and governing principles of non-alignment. In April 1954‚ Nehru delivered a speech in Colombo‚ Sri Lanka‚ referring to Indo-China relations and their prospects. He defined five guiding principles‚ also known as Panchsheel‚ for such cooperation. The Panchsheel would become the cornerstone of the movement. The principles were:   Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; Mutual non-aggression; Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs; Equality and mutual benefit; Peaceful co-existence.   Smaller‚ newly independent states were significantly encouraged to join the movement by India’s public declaration of its commitment to non-alignment. As one of the founders and keen advocates of non-alignment‚ India under Nehru actively engaged in all summits and meetings of the NAM until the 1970s.   The mid-1970s saw a shift in Indian foreign policy towards the Soviet Union. The Soviet authorities provided significant military and financial aid to India and supported it during the Kashmir conflict with Pakistan and the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971. The shift made other states more vulnerable to falling under the influence of either the United States or the Soviet Union and resulted in the weakening of the movement as a whole.   The front page of The Indian Express on March 8‚ 1983. Source: Indian Express   The Sino-Indian War of 1967 and the two wars with Pakistan (1965 and 1971) escalated tensions between the South Asian countries of the NAM as well. For instance‚ Indonesia and Egypt opposed India and declared their support for Pakistan as they believed India only adhered to the non-alignment principles outside of its sphere of influence and not in the South Asian region‚ where it sought to establish dominance.   By the beginning of the 1980s‚ India’s prestige as a committed member of the NAM was already damaged. To reassert its leading role within the movement‚ India’s Prime Minister Indira Gandhi redirected the focus towards the economic development of the NAM members. In 1983‚ the Delhi Summit of the NAM was held in hopes of addressing the economic issues of less developed countries. The Summit did boost India’s influence. However‚ its support for the Soviet Union regarding the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan uncovered India’s pro-Soviet stance.   4. Egypt A poster showcasing Nasser’s economic achievements while in power‚ by Frank Horvat‚ 1962. Source: Egyptian Streets   Egypt was a pioneer in promoting the concept of non-alignment during the Cold War‚ and Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ the charismatic Egyptian revolutionary leader‚ played a crucial role in this endeavor. Even before the 1955 Bandung Conference‚ Nasser was one of the first to “begin to formulate in public statements a number of ideas‚ which he later called neutralism or non-alignment.”   Egypt had a long history of colonial rule‚ similar to other founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries‚ Egypt was ruled by the British Empire. Located in the Middle East‚ Egypt was rich in oil resources‚ which made it a strategic point for dominance between the United States and the Soviet Union. Non-alignment for Nasser meant safeguarding Egyptian sovereignty and avoiding foreign interference in Egypt’s affairs.   Nasser developed pan-Arabism as a concept of Afro-Asian solidarity. For Nasser‚ since most Arab countries shared a colonial past and were culturally‚ religiously‚ and linguistically close‚ they should be united to become free of Western domination. Pan-Arabism became an influential ideological tool in the hands of the Egyptian president‚ especially after the 1952 Egyptian revolution and Nasser’s consolidation of power. His ideas‚ based on Arab nationalism‚ anti-imperialism‚ and anti-colonialism‚ resonated with those of other newly independent African and Asian colonies‚ which sided with Egypt to oppose foreign dominance in the region.   Due to these developments‚ Egypt became the center of the Middle East rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Nasser’s belief that non-alignment was the only viable foreign policy path for former colonies.   Entrance to the Suez Canal‚ 1956. Source: National Army Museum   The Suez Canal‚ situated in Egypt‚ held significant strategic value as a direct sea route connecting Europe and Asia. Israel‚ France‚ and Britain attempted to seize control of the Suez Canal in 1956. With the financial and military assistance of the two Cold War rivals‚ the United States and the Soviet Union‚ Egypt was able to resist successfully. The event strengthened Nasser’s belief that non-alignment offered Egypt flexibility and space for political maneuver.   In June 1961‚ Egypt hosted the preparatory meeting of the NAM Summit in Cairo‚ and in October 1964‚ the Second Summit was held with 47 participants.   Following Nasser’s death in 1970‚ Egypt remained an active member of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ with a changed foreign policy course‚ however. Unlike Nasser’s reactionary policies‚ the new leader of Egypt‚ Anwar Sadat‚ chose a more pragmatic course. He signed the peace deal with Israel. The Camp David Accords of 1978 were viewed as Egypt’s shift from its traditional non-aligned policy.