Columbus may have sailed in pursuit of gold‚ but what he and his successors found was a new world full of never-before-seen plants‚ animals‚ and even technology. From unique foods to mind-boggling tools and skills‚ civilizations in Meso- and South America wowed newcomers with everything from chocolate to brain surgery‚ pioneering or perfecting inventions we still use today.   Inca Inventions: Masters of Food Preservation &; Brain Surgery   1. First in Freeze Drying Inca food storehouse‚ or qullqa‚ at Ollantaytambo‚ Peru. Photo author’s own.   Before every home had a refrigerator to store leftovers the family wanted to let slowly go bad before throwing them out a week later‚ food preservation was considerably more difficult. Yet‚ without the advantages of rapid modern transportation and agricultural practices used to counteract drought and pestilence‚ preservation was more essential than ever.   Long before kids could snack on the wonder that is astronaut ice cream‚ the Inca were the first to use the food preservation technique that is today called freeze-drying.   Freeze-drying is a preservation method that allows food to retain much of its original flavor and nutrients. Modern freeze-drying uses equipment to freeze the water in the material in question and then remove it by converting the ice to vapor and vacuuming it out. Removing the water content eliminates the moisture bacteria need to grow‚ creating spoil-resistant food.   For the Inca‚ freeze-drying was a practical way to preserve an essential food‚ potatoes‚ utilizing the unique climate of the Andes. Not only did freeze-drying allow potatoes to be stored for long periods of time in case of drought‚ but it also made them lighter and easier to transport‚ ideal for soldiers on the road.   Two different types of chu&;ntilde;o‚ freeze-dried potatoes still made in the Andes today using a practice invented by the Inca. Source: ZME Science   Freeze-dried potatoes‚ or chu&;ntilde;o—from the Quechua ch’u&;ntilde;u‚ “frozen potato”—pre-date the conquest‚ but the first recorded evidence of their existence comes from Spanish chroniclers in the late 16th century. To create chu&;ntilde;o‚ farmers in the Andes would lay potatoes out to freeze at night‚ then dehydrate them in the strong sunlight during the day. After repeating this process several times‚ the potatoes would then be smashed—literally trampled by foot—and go through several more rounds of freezing and dehydrating. The result is a preserved potato product that lasts for years. It’s often rehydrated in soups or other dishes or ground and used as a type of flour.   The Inca didn’t use freeze-drying solely for potatoes—it was also notably used for meat to create a product far more widely known than chu&;ntilde;o: jerky. While more traditional smoking and salting were likely used in the lower altitudes‚ up in the Andes‚ thin slices of llama or alpaca meat were treated much like potatoes‚ alternately frozen and sun-baked to create a dried meat that could be easily preserved and transported. The conquistadors apparently took more of a liking to ch’arki than chu&;ntilde;o‚ adopting the snack and spreading it and its name around the world.   2. Masters of Skull Surgery An unhealed trepanned skull‚ indicating the patient did not survive surgery‚ circa 1000-1400 CE‚ Peru. Source: World Neurosurgery‚ Volume 114‚ June 2018   Something as delicate as brain surgery seems like it would be impossible without modern medicine‚ not to mention hygiene. However‚ primitive forms of brain surgery were performed as early as 5‚000 years ago.   One of the civilizations to not only perform brain surgery‚ or trepanation‚ thousands of years ago but to do it regularly and well was the Inca. More trepanned skulls have been found in modern-day Peru than anywhere else in the world‚ and the success rates for those surgeries are among the highest for any pre-modern civilization to perform the procedure.   Trepanation is a broad term that encompasses boring‚ scraping‚ or cutting into the skull for any number of reasons‚ though often to address head trauma. And without antibiotics or anesthesia‚ it sounds like a nightmare at best and a death sentence at worst. But the Inca not only used the practice regularly but became highly skilled.   The arid climate of the Andes lends itself to archeological preservation‚ which means scientists have been able to study hundreds of Inca and pre-Inca brain surgery patients. The earliest skulls studied in the region‚ dating back to 400-200 BCE‚ showed survival rates around 40%—and for comparison sake‚ researchers highlighted that the survival rate for battlefield trepanation during the American Civil War over 2‚000 years later averaged about 50%.   Tools found buried with a pre-Inca Sican surgeon‚ circa 900-1050 CE‚ Lambayeque‚ Peru. Source: Andina   But at the peak of the empire’s skill‚ the survival rate—evidenced by healing around the incision site—was as high as 80%. Scientists even observed two skulls with seven healed incisions a piece‚ indicating that the procedure was not only used to treat the type of head injuries sustained in battle but also to try to address internal maladies‚ perhaps headaches or epilepsy.   So‚ how did they do it&;#63;   A skull from the Inca Empire boasting five healed trepanation holes. Source: World Neurosurgery‚ Volume 114‚ June 2018   The archeological evidence suggests that the practice was refined over time. Skulls have been discovered with post-mortem trepanation‚ indicating that Inca surgeons were studying anatomy to improve the procedure. As their knowledge expanded‚ the size of the holes being made shrank‚ and the technique shifted from boring holes in the skull to a less risky gradual scraping away or “grooving” of bone that reduced the chances of puncturing the protective membrane around the brain. The site of the incisions also moved away from areas most likely to cause heavy bleeding.   The Inca also had a wide knowledge of medicinal herbs that may have been used to anesthetize patients and possibly prevent infection. Though there is no evidence linking these herbs directly to the trepanation procedure‚ Inca use of coca leaf as a topical pain killer‚ cinchona bark to lower fevers‚ and chicha‚ a fermented corn beer‚ as a pseudo-anesthesia to induce unconsciousness are all documented.   Aztec Inventions: Snack Food Aficionados   3. Chewing Gum Gurus Illustration of a woman chewing chicle‚ gum‚ from The General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahag&;uacute;n: The Florentine Codex‚ 1577. Source: Library of Congress   Anyone who’s ever stepped in a wad of chewing gum carelessly discarded on the sidewalk has probably cursed the person who invented it‚ but despite the rage induced by having to remove the sticky substance from shoes‚ clothes‚ and hair‚ the habit of chewing gum has persisted for an impressively long time: thousands of years.   Various cultures developed a practice of chewing plant-derived substances‚ including the ancient Greeks‚ but modern chewing gum has its roots‚ literally‚ in the Aztec Empire and the sapodilla tree‚ native to Mesoamerica and the Caribbean.   When injured‚ the sapodilla tree secretes a sticky resin to cover and protect the damaged area. The Aztec (as well as the Maya) developed a practice of harvesting and chewing this latex‚ which has a slightly sweet flavor‚ sometimes mixing it with additional ingredients to improve the texture. The word for this substance‚ tzictli in Nahuatl‚ became chicle in Spanish‚ and is also where the name Chiclets‚ one of the most well-known chewing gum brands‚ came from.   Gum chewing in the Aztec Empire was not a free-for-all—while it was done to freshen breath and clean teeth‚ much like today‚ social norms determined who could chew tzictli and where. According to Spanish chroniclers in the 16th century‚ only unmarried women and children could chew gum in public without judgment; married women could chew gum in private‚ and gum chewing by men was frowned upon altogether.   A circa 1919 American Chicle Company chewing gum ad. Source: CTG Publishing   Though a variety of chewing gums were produced from tree resins and saps in the early Americas‚ modern chewing gum was first developed from tzictli in the late 19th century. Former Mexican leader Antonio L&;oacute;pez de Santa Anna‚ living in exile in the US‚ imported chicle from his home country and gave some to collaborator and inventor Thomas Andrews to develop as a rubber substitute.    Failing to make chicle a success in that regard‚ Andrews instead developed it into a commercial chewing gum. In 1899‚ he incorporated the American Chicle Company in New Jersey‚ and various chewing gum companies continued to import and use chicle to produce commercial chewing gum. Ultimately‚ chicle was replaced by synthetics in the 1960s.   4. Popcorn Purveyors Illustrations of Indigenous people growing corn from The General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahag&;uacute;n: The Florentine Codex‚ 1577. Source: Library of Congress   Maize—of the standard and popping varieties—spread throughout the pre-conquest Americas as early as 4000 BCE and into the present-day southwestern US by approximately 2‚500 years ago. However‚ the process of domesticating this staple food was a long one that began in present-day Mexico.    Teosinte‚ the wild grass that was eventually domesticated into maize‚ bears little resemblance to today’s corn—the plants had a single “ear” that was teeny by comparison‚ with just 5-12 hard seeds‚ not the multiple large cobs full of soft kernels seen today. Fortunately for modern moviegoers‚ the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica didn’t let the inedibility of corn’s ancestors discourage them. Instead‚ they invented a tasty snack to tide them over while they worked to cultivate a more edible crop.   Bowl featuring the god of maize as a cacao tree‚ highlighting the sources of two important New World inventions. Maya‚ circa 5th century CE. Source: Dumbarton Oaks Museum‚ Washington DC   Through selective breeding‚ the Indigenous peoples of present-day Mexico were able to gradually produce a plant with more‚ softer‚ and edible kernels. But before they succeeded in that endeavor‚ they still had the hard-kernelled predecessors to deal with. Though it was not edible raw‚ and it was too hard even to grind‚ they discovered that when heated‚ pressure would build up in the kernel‚ leading it to burst. These “popped” kernels were edible and became an important food source that continued to be popular long after a softer‚ easier-to-use corn was bred.   Aztez maize (corn) deity Chicomecoatl‚ circa 15th to early 16th century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   While it was not the Mexica themselves who “invented” popcorn‚ but their Indigenous ancestors‚ Spanish colonizers first encountered popcorn when they invaded the Aztec Empire‚ where popcorn‚ or momochitl‚ was not only eaten but used in decoration and for ceremonial purposes. In particular‚ it seems to have been associated with the god of rain‚ Tlaloc‚ with popcorn garlands and necklaces worn during festivities to honor him. According to the Spanish chronicler by Fray Bernardino de Sahag&;uacute;n‚ The Festival of Toxcatl‚ held prior to the rainy season‚ included women doing a “popcorn dance” to honor the gods and request their blessing in providing essential rains.   Maya Inventions: Fun and Games   5. Revolutionizing Rubber Vessel with ballgame scene‚ circa 600-900 CE‚ Guatemala. Source: Denver Art Museum   From tires to designer sneakers‚ rubber is ubiquitous today‚ and its invention is usually credited to Charles Goodyear. However‚ the Maya civilization would beg to differ. Ancient Mayans and their predecessors were making and using rubber thousands of years before Mr. Goodyear’s name was first plastered on blimps.   The Maya are famous for their ball courts—and a bouncy rubber ball is key to any ball game. The oldest known rubber ball discovered in Mesoamerica dates to 1600 BCE‚ meaning the Olmec‚ a smaller civilization that overlapped with the Maya and is considered one of its predecessors‚ was likely the first to create rubber. In fact‚ “Olmec” derives from the Nahuatl word used for this culture that literally translates as “rubber people.”   The Maya continued the practice of ceremonial ball games‚ making improvements to natural rubber that allowed it to be used in other applications as well—including shoes. By the time the Spanish arrived‚ a large rubber industry was thriving in the Americas‚ producing thousands of rubber balls each year‚ as well as other goods.   The natural rubber first used by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica came from the Castilla elastica‚ or Panama rubber tree. In its original state‚ the sap‚ or latex‚ from the tree is sticky and becomes brittle as it hardens—not an ideal substance for bouncy balls. This sap was mixed with juice from the morning glory vine‚ which created a more usable and bouncy rubber.    Depiction of the so-called Mesoamerican ballgame‚ as illustrated on a Mayan vase. Photograph by Justin Kerr. Source: Mayavase Database‚ University of Oregon   Modern researchers have recreated this original Maya recipe‚ as noted by Spanish chroniclers‚ and found that adjusting the ratio of latex to juice creates rubber of varying properties‚ including a less bouncy‚ more durable rubber that may have been used for shoes. Spanish records from the 16th century indicate that natives were wearing sandals with rubber soles‚ though no archaeological evidence of ancient flip-flops has been found.    Charles Goodyear‚ the so-called inventor of vulcanized rubber‚ created it by heating latex from Brazilian rubber trees with sulfur‚ which makes the latex more durable and elastic. Interestingly‚ the morning glory juice used by the Maya to create rubber has sulfur-containing amino acids. The Maya and their predecessors may not have understood the chemistry of polymer chains‚ but they were still the masters of vulcanizing rubber.   6. The World’s First Chocolatiers Maya clay chocolate pot‚ circa 750 CE. Source: Minneapolis Institute of Art   The sweet treat that now marks nearly every holiday celebration has been adapted and‚ arguably‚ improved by numerous inventors and companies over the last 500 or so years‚ but every Hershey’s Kiss and M&;M owes its existence to the Maya.   While the English word for chocolate most likely comes from the Nahuatl xocolatl‚ and it was the Aztec ruler Montezuma whom the Spanish discovered consuming the bitter beverage‚ it was the Maya and their predecessors who first invented the way to make cacao beans edible.    Researchers believe cacao beans may have been consumed as early as 1500 BCE‚ and cooking artifacts from the pre-Maya Olmec civilization have shown traces of theobromine‚ a chemical unique to cacao (and the one that makes it poisonous to dogs&;#33;).    Spouted jar‚ a unique Maya design that allowed them to blow air into the body and create a froth on the chocolate beverage‚ circa 1st century BCE to 1st century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   How they discovered the joys of chocolate is largely a mystery‚ as in their raw form‚ the beans are inedible‚ and the process of making them into something people actually enjoy consuming is laborious. Once extracted from the cacao pods‚ the seeds must first be fermented‚ then allowed to dry‚ then roasted‚ and then finally ground.   The Olmec civilization died out around 350 BCE‚ but the Maya picked up where they left off‚ and much more is known about their love affair with chocolate. Maya written records‚ as well as paintings‚ carvings‚ and other artifacts‚ indicate that chocolate held an important role in society. It was used in celebrations and ceremonies‚ and the beans served as a form of currency. The word cacao itself comes from the Maya word kakaw‚ and evidence suggests the Maya were actively cultivating cacao trees‚ not simply harvesting wild beans.   The Princeton Vase‚ a Maya chocolate cup with an illustration showing a woman pouring chocolate‚ 670-750 CE. Source: Princeton University Art Museum   Chocolate during the time of the Maya civilization was not usually sweetened‚ yet despite its bitter flavor—enjoyed as a hot frothy beverage‚ chocolhaa‚ and sometimes spiced with ground chilis‚ cinnamon‚ vanilla‚ or other herbs—it was popular and widely consumed.    What chocolate wasn’t to the Maya was food—it was always a beverage. Treats like truffles and candy bars came long after the conquest as the Spanish (slowly—some claim they kept it to themselves for nearly 100 years&;#33;) shared the treat with Europe‚ and hundreds of sweet goodies were developed‚ all from the humble Maya kakaw bean.

  Thousands of crimes are committed every day‚ and most cases are “open-and-shut‚” meaning there is little to dispute. The vast majority of criminal defendants plead guilty‚ typically facing undeniable evidence. Occasionally‚ however‚ a defendant tries to argue that they are not guilty by virtue of diminished mental capacity. This means that they are not guilty because a situation occurred that prevented them from knowing that the actions committed were wrong. Diminished mental capacity can be a mitigating factor in determining punishment or even allow a defendant to be found not guilty by reason of insanity. Here is a look at some controversial defenses arguing that the defendant had diminished capacity.   Setting the Stage: Mental Capacity &; Guilt Inmates in a mental asylum. Source: PBS   The debate over what constitutes criminal guilt has raged since the dawn of human misbehavior. Today‚ mental capacity is the common term for one’s ability to understand the wrongness of one’s actions and control one’s behavior. However‚ both of these abilities exist on a spectrum in the real world due to the myriad of personality traits‚ intelligence quotients‚ and potential personality or mental health disorders experienced by individuals. Fortunately‚ the vast majority of people fit within a reasonable person standard in terms of their ability to understand the wrongness of actions and control their behavior.   But what of those who do not fit within the parameters of a “reasonable person&;#63;” In 1843‚ English courts began using the M’Naghten Rule. Daniel M’Naghten was found not guilty by reason of insanity‚ meaning he lacked the capacity to determine right from wrong. In the late 1800s‚ courts in the United States began using similar standards. In 1929‚ US courts began using the more expansive “irresistible impulse test” to acquit those who were‚ by reason of mental defect‚ unable to stop themselves from acting even if they knew their action was wrong. Periodically‚ new rules were refined for determining mental capacity and criminal culpability.   Setting the Stage: Temporary Insanity A graphic detailing the four key types of not guilty by mental defect defenses. Source: The University of Minnesota   The original “Twinkie Defense‚” an umbrella term for an unconventional legal defense argument for diminished mental capacity‚ was temporary insanity. In popular media‚ ranging from books to television shows‚ criminals of horrible crimes are often depicted as trying to scheme their way out of conviction by pleading temporary insanity. The argument is often difficult‚ as “temporary” insanity means evidence is usually lacking after the fact. Almost always‚ this defense is used for violent “crimes of passion‚” where the defendant was so enraged by a situation that they (allegedly) lost the ability to distinguish right from wrong and refrain from acting illegally.   Not surprisingly‚ the defense of temporary insanity has long been controversial‚ with people angered that someone who committed heinous acts is able to go unpunished. However‚ the defense is not usually successful. Sometimes‚ attempts to argue temporary insanity may be helpful to the defense in that they show the crime was not premeditated‚ which can reduce punishment. Some states allow a “middle ground” determination of guilty but mentally ill‚ where the convicted defendant receives mental health treatment either before or in conjunction with incarceration.   Historical Uses of Temporary Insanity Defense New York congressman Daniel Sickles‚ shown here during the US Civil War‚ was the first to be acquitted by temporary insanity in 1859. Source: US Department of Defense   In 1859‚ a congressman from New York named Daniel Sickles shot and killed an attorney who was allegedly having an affair with Sickles’ wife. Sickles was charismatic and popular and quickly won over the court of public opinion. Dramatically‚ Sickles’ legal team argued that the congressman was unable to control his passion‚ which made him not culpable for his actions. It was more generous than previous arguments of temporary insanity‚ such as those in England that required the defendant to have the capacity of a “wild beast.” Sickles’ defense argued that he retained his higher functioning but was so outraged at the immoral actions afoot that he could not stop himself.   Sickles was quickly acquitted and later served as an officer during the US Civil War (1861-65). Another famous acquittal under the insanity defense went to John Hinckley Jr.‚ the attempted assassin of US President Ronald Reagan in 1981. However‚ because Hinckley’s insanity was not temporary‚ he was remanded to a mental hospital for treatment and was only released in 2022. Hinckley’s acquittal and avoidance of prison were controversial at the time‚ with many viewing insanity defenses as false attempts to pretend mental incapacity.   1979: The Twinkie Defense A photograph of Harvey Milk‚ an elected city official in San Francisco‚ California‚ who was assassinated by former colleague Dan White in 1978. Source: National Public Radio (NPR)   The term “Twinkie defense” comes from the seemingly outrageous argument offered by the defense of Dan White‚ the San Francisco politician who shot and killed his former colleague‚ Harvey Milk‚ and the city’s mayor in November 1978. Milk was the first openly gay elected official in the United States. After killing mayor George Moscone‚ White went to the other end of the building and killed Milk‚ allegedly committing both murders in revenge for losing his seat as a city supervisor. White quickly surrendered to police officers afterward‚ leaving little question as to whether he had committed the murders.   White’s defense alleged that he had diminished capacity due to depression and mental illness‚ with these conditions being caused by his excessive consumption of junk food…such as Twinkies. A popular misconception is that White’s team alleged that the sugar itself caused White’s behavior‚ while the link is actually less direct. The jury agreed that White’s mental state did reduce his capacity and convicted him of voluntary manslaughter rather than murder. This resulted in outrage among the LGBTQ community; many felt that White’s seven-year sentence was insufficient. Shortly after being released from prison‚ White committed suicide in 1985.   1998: Gay Panic Defense A poster for a dance recital remembering Matthew Shepard‚ a Wyoming man murdered in 1998 by two men who tried to use a controversial gay panic defense. Source: Western Oregon University   Another controversial criminal defense that has been considered a “Twinkie defense” is the gay panic defense and other iterations of it‚ such as the trans panic defense. This term stems from the trial after the 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard‚ a gay man in Wyoming. Shepard was beaten and left for dead near Laramie‚ Wyoming‚ his body tied to a fence. The two defendants originally alleged that they had reacted in a “panic” after Shepard allegedly came onto them. The trial judge rejected this defense‚ and some state legislatures have banned its consideration in court.   Despite claiming that they had acted in “self-defense” after being confronted with homosexual advances‚ the two defendants’ statements indicated that they had intended to rob Shepard. In the years after the murder‚ Colorado‚ California‚ and Illinois banned the use of the gay panic defense‚ followed by several others after 2017. Legislation to expand this ban is pending as of 2023 in Wisconsin‚ Michigan‚ and Pennsylvania. As of 2017‚ iterations of the gay panic defense had been used in about half of US states‚ though they were typically unsuccessful.   2010s: “Affluenza” Defense(s) A 2016 photograph of teenager Ethan Couch‚ whose defense alleged that he had diminished capacity due to “affluenza.” Source: National Public Radio (NPR)   In 2013‚ a Texas teenager killed four people while driving under the influence of alcohol. Instead of receiving a substantial prison sentence‚ as was expected by many observers in the tough-on-crime state‚ the teen received two years in a counseling program and probation. The teen’s lawyers successfully argued that the young man had diminished capacity to understand consequences due to “affluenza‚” or a lifestyle of wealth and little discipline. Unsurprisingly‚ the public was outraged. Many equated it with preferential treatment for wealthy defendants‚ similar to white-collar criminals who received little punishment for financial crimes like embezzlement and fraud.   The 2013 intoxication manslaughter case was followed quickly by other alleged examples of “affluenza defenses‚” typically arguing that the defendant would do poorly in prison and that imprisonment would destroy a promising future. The latter argument has controversially been applied to college athletes‚ with sexual assaults committed by male college athletes often considered a hidden epidemic. Star athletes accused of crimes may be defended with arguments that equate their highly competitive and risk-taking natures with diminished capacity for understanding boundaries and consequences.   Bad Science for Prosecution: Phrenology Skulls labeled as part of the 19th-century pseudoscience of phrenology‚ which attempted to predict criminal traits using biological measurements. Source: University of Edinburgh   But it’s not just defendants who have a penchant for using (alleged) pseudoscience: prosecutors and law enforcement have also dabbled in dubious data to provide “evidence” of guilt. Phrenology was a popular science in the 1800s that studied the link between physical characteristics‚ often of the head and skull‚ and behavior. Criminologists thought crime could be predicted‚ as those with certain physical characteristics would be more likely to commit it. The most famous proponent of this school was Cesare Lombroso‚ an Italian theorist who studied the alleged hereditary nature of criminality.   Despite the science being quickly discredited‚ phrenologists did bring about some positive ideas‚ such as the goal of rehabilitating and reforming criminals rather than simply punishing them harshly (as was common in the early 1800s). However‚ this “progressive” view often came with much paternalistic discrimination and stereotyping. Social Darwinists of the 1800s and early 1900s believed that many groups and cultures were less fit to engage in civilized government than others and extended this view to criminality as well. Many felt that people from poorer countries and demographics were more naturally suited to criminality‚ creating and reinforcing harmful stereotypes.   Bad Science 2.0: Polygraphs &; Chromosomes A computer screen showing measurements taken during a polygraph exam to try and determine if the tested subject is feeling anxiety. Source: PBS Learning Media   While physical traits were often discounted as a sign of criminality by the 1900s‚ authorities began to use new technology to try to measure defendants’ internal conditions. In the 1920s‚ the polygraph‚ often called the lie detector test‚ was invented. Polygraph machines did not detect lies but rather simply reported changes in bodily functions like respiration and heart rate. However‚ observers would use this real-time data to interpret that a tested subject was being deceptive. Polygraphs are typically inadmissible in court and cannot be used by private employers‚ though they may be used by law enforcement agencies to screen – and deny employment to – applicants. Many critics argue that polygraphs can both be “beaten” by very calm defendants and can give false positives of guilt to stressed and nervous defendants.   In the 1960s‚ the discovery of the XYY chromosomal anomaly‚ where males have an extra Y chromosome‚ renewed interest in the biological influence on crime. Both researchers and defense attorneys took to the new XYY discovery‚ with some wanting to test masculine-looking men for an additional Y chromosome so they could be monitored for aggression and defense attorneys arguing that XYY syndrome meant their clients were less culpable for their actions. Ultimately‚ research revealed little link between XYY syndrome and criminal aggression.   Highly Technical Defenses &; Bench Trials An empty jury panel‚ as would occur during a bench trial where the judge alone determines guilt. Source: Duke University School of Law   Both “Twinkie defenses” and highly technical evidence may confuse jurors‚ leading certain defendants to seek a bench trial rather than a jury trial. In a bench trial‚ the judge decides guilt rather than a jury. This can be advantageous to the defense when a case is highly complex‚ such as those involving temporary insanity or diminished capacity. A judge is more likely than a layperson to understand the complex evidence and its proper relationship to the law. Additionally‚ a judge is more likely to be dispassionate (unbiased) and rule based strictly on the evidence and the law rather than on emotion or public opinion.   The famous scales of justice and a judge’s gavel in front of an American flag‚ representing the US criminal justice system. Source: The Society for the Blind   Many defendants who choose a bench trial do so in order not to risk an angry jury. This often includes cases of temporary insanity or reduced mental capacity in the commission of violent crime. The jury may become inflamed and more prone to vote guilty based simply on the nature of the crime and media commentary‚ which would include media criticism of supposed “Twinkie Defenses.” Thus‚ even legitimate uses of defenses that seem implausible could backfire when subject to the decisions of lay jurors.   Ongoing Debate: Bias in the Judicial System A graphic detailing racial disparities in the presentation of white versus Black criminal defendants. Source: The Equal Justice Initiative (EJI)   The success of “Twinkie Defenses” is often embroiled in the constant debate over bias and discrimination in the justice system. From crimes being reported from arrest to determining guilt to sentencing‚ suspects and defendants who are of the dominant groups in society‚ plus those who are physically attractive‚ are advantaged. Critics of the judicial system argue that poor and minority defendants are rarely given lesser sentences or acquitted on the grounds of mental incapacity‚ despite wealthy and white defendants often receiving such benefits.   One point of contention is access to mental health experts to testify on behalf of defendants. Although the US Supreme Court has ruled that indigent (low-income) defendants must be given a court-appointed mental health practitioner if one is requested‚ wealthy defendants are far more likely to have a psychiatrist testify to their incapacity at trial. Privately hired psychiatrists are more likely to actively assist the defense in making a defendant appear mentally incapacitated at the time of the crime‚ thus making wealthy defendants more likely to receive lesser punishments on the grounds of being less culpable for their actions. Therefore‚ “Twinkie Defenses‚” at least successful ones‚ are only likely to be attempted by wealthier defendants.

  Indigenous people of the American continent faced severe disruption from the moment European colonists stepped onto it. With them‚ colonists brought irrevocable changes that forever altered the lives of the Native Americans. Though decisions were oftentimes made for them through firepower‚ Indigenous tribes were able to occasionally make decisions about their path for the future. One of the most significant was deciding whether to support the British or the Patriots during the American Revolution. Indigenous people had to gamble on which side would have their best interests at heart.   A Brief History Negotiations between British soldiers and Indigenous allies. Source: American Battlefield Trust   Most people‚ or at least most Americans‚ know the basic backstory of the American Revolution. The British colonists living in the future United States grew frustrated with the British government’s excessive taxation and their lack of representation in Parliament and in other government matters. These troubles had been brewing since the end of the French and Indian War and the Proclamation of 1763‚ which many colonists felt placed unfair restrictions on their expansion.   Corrupt colonial governors further divided the people from their king across the Atlantic Ocean‚ and in 1776‚ the Americans declared independence from Britain. However‚ by this time‚ the actual fighting of the Revolution had already begun‚ with the first shots being fired at Lexington‚ then Concord‚ Massachusetts on April 19‚ 1775. The colonists living in the Americas were divided on the issue of loyalty‚ with approximately one-third of the population choosing to stay in support of the British crown. These people were known as Loyalists‚ while those who supported the colonial cause were known as Patriots.   Indigenous Status A painting of British soldiers with an Indigenous ally by J. Redondo‚ Source: Pinterest   However‚ the colonists were not the only ones who had to choose a side‚ nor were they the only ones who had a stake in the outcome of the Revolutionary War. The Indigenous peoples who lived in the Eastern part of the continent had already had their lives disrupted by the influx of colonialism‚ and the outcome of this war would affect their future.   Due to conflicts such as King Philip’s War‚ Many tribes had already been pushed westward or largely decimated. Others‚ such as the Iroquois‚ or Haudenosaunee‚ Confederacy‚ had expanded their territory through warfare in order to maintain economic and military alliances with British colonists during the preceding centuries.   Other Native peoples had chosen or were forced to give up their traditional ways of life and had assimilated into colonial society. Still others lived near colonial towns and maintained trade relationships with the colonists. Some tribes continued to fight with colonists intermittently over land and resources.   A painting of the Battle of Saratoga‚ which continued a turning point of the Revolutionary War‚ with Indigenous fighters featured prominently. Source: Brewminate   The types of interactions between Indigenous peoples and British colonists varied widely and played a role in how this war would affect them all. There were more than 250‚000 Native Americans east of the Mississippi River when the war began‚ and they were members of more than 80 distinct nations‚ further adding to the variability in their decision-making regarding alliances. Regardless of their affiliation‚ Indigenous people recognized that their land and future were at stake in relation to the outcome of the Revolutionary War. As both the British and Patriots began to call on Native tribes for support‚ intertribal conflict arose.   The Haudenosaunee The Tree of Peace is a traditional Haudenosaunee symbol. Source: Tuscarora Woodworks   The Haudenosaunee Confederacy‚ one of the oldest working democracies in the world‚ was originally made up of five tribes‚ with a sixth added in 1722. The Oneida‚ Mohawk‚ Onondaga‚ Cayuga‚ Seneca‚ and Tuscarora originally decided to remain neutral in the Revolutionary War.   However‚ as the war progressed‚ the Confederacy became divided. Some wished to side with the British‚ as they had in the past during the fur trade and the French and Indian War. The British attempted to sweeten the deal by promising to protect tribal lands in exchange for Haudenosaunee support. Some nations in the Confederacy had close relationships with local colonists and wished to side with their neighbors‚ while others wanted to remain neutral in a conflict they felt was none of their business. This led to a divide in the Confederacy that would weaken it internally and permanently.   Thayendanegea portrait by Gilbert Stuart‚ 1785. Source: New Yorker   Due to closer relationships with the colonists‚ including influence from a missionary named Samuel Kirkland‚ the Oneida would break and become the first allies of the colonial cause. They provided America with troops and supplies throughout the war‚ even fighting against their own former allies‚ the Seneca‚ Cayuga‚ and Mohawk‚ who chose to side with the British.   The Mohawk had a strong trading relationship with the British and were suffering from colonial influx into their lands‚ which made their decision to support England an easy one. Thayendanegea‚ also known by his English-given name Joseph Brant‚ was incredibly influential in this decision and played a large role in Mohawk-British relations. Thayendanegea’s sister‚ Molly‚ was the wife of Sir William Johnson‚ the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs‚ which exposed him to British culture from an early age. He helped organize concerted raids with combined parties of Loyalists and Mohawk warriors on American settlements in New York and Pennsylvania and was eventually made a captain in the British army.   Engraving titled Washington and Fairfax and a War-Dance by John Rogers‚ 1857. Source: Mount Vernon   Mohawk raids often led to retaliatory attacks by the Continental Army. An example is a campaign that was initiated by General George Washington in 1779‚ who dispatched General John Sullivan into Haudenosaunee lands with the mission to destroy villages‚ crops‚ and other resources. It was a large‚ well-planned operation with the goal of stopping Mohawk raids. It was successful enough that it earned Washington the Haudenosaunee nickname “Town Destroyer.”   The Stockbridge-Mohicans The great seal of the Stockbridge-Munsee band of Mohican Indians‚ photo by Nancy Eve Cohen. Source: Connecticut Public   The Stockbridge-Mohicans were made up of a multi-Indigenous community of Mohican‚ Wappinger‚ and Housatonic peoples in the area of Stockbridge‚ Massachusetts. Many had converted to Christianity with the arrival of settlers in the 1730s and adopted European customs‚ living alongside the colonists.   Therefore‚ when war arrived‚ it was an easy decision for the Stockbridge-Mohicans to join the Patriots in their cause. Members of the Stockbridge-Mohicans were present when the “shot heard round the world” was fired at Lexington and volunteered as minutemen in Concord. General George Washington was authorized by Congress to actively recruit them in 1776‚ and they served throughout the war on the battlefield and in intelligence roles.   The Cherokee The current seal of the Cherokee Nation. Source: Cherokee Nation   The Cherokee were inspired to aid the British during the Revolutionary War due to frequent encroachment from settlers along the borders of the Carolinas and other states in the South. Cherokee forces‚ organized in part by John Stuart‚ the British superintendent of the south‚ began attacks on white settlements‚ particularly along the North Carolina and Virginia frontiers.   In retaliation for these attacks‚ the Continental Army went on a punitive expedition called the Cherokee Campaign of 1776. As a result of this campaign‚ more than fifty Cherokee towns were destroyed during the summer of 1776‚ devastating the people. This left the Cherokee ready to negotiate for peace. Treaties were signed between the Patriots and the Cherokee‚ and these would mark the first (but certainly not the last) instances of the Cherokee being forced to cede land to the future United States.   This was not unsettled land that was given up but sites that the Cherokee people had occupied for centuries. These negotiations not only left the Cherokee even weaker as a whole but caused internal conflict between generations‚ particularly older‚ tired leaders and young warriors who wanted to continue to fight. Some moved to Tennessee and parts of Northern Alabama‚ where they continued to fight the colonists until the end of the war.   No Winners The Surrender of Cornwallis by John Trumbull‚ 1787. The British surrender at Yorktown would not be the end of the fighting for Indigenous nations. Source: US History   The Revolutionary War would not end well for America’s Indigenous people‚ regardless of which side they fought on. Although the Battle of Yorktown in 1781 is largely considered the last major battle of the war‚ fights on the frontier were far from over. In fact‚ west of the Appalachian mountains‚ 1782 was known as the “Bloody Year.”   Even the Treaty of Paris in 1783 did not end the bloodshed that would continue to take place between Native Americans and European settlers well into the 19th century and even beyond. Many had lost their homes‚ croplands‚ hunting grounds‚ family members‚ and friends to the Revolution. Traditional tribal alliances had been shaken up‚ strained‚ and broken. Some tribes had been forever destroyed.   The writing &; signing of the Treaty of Paris 1783 included no Indigenous input. Source: American Battlefield Trust   The Treaty of Paris is the document that signified the conclusion of the American Revolution. However‚ it was written and signed without any input or consent from the Indigenous tribes that participated in the war on either side‚ even though it affected them greatly.   For example‚ as a result of the treaty‚ the British gave up their lands in the new United States as part of the treaty. As a result‚ the Mohawk‚ who had supported them diligently throughout the war‚ lost nearly all of their traditional homelands and were soon relegated to reservations.   The support that many Indigenous nations had given the British during the war was used as another excuse to displace them. The British had abandoned their Native allies and now left them weakened and without resources in the face of a new enemy nation that would rapidly grow in power.   Eventually‚ the groups that supported the revolutionaries would also lose their homelands as they were moved aside to make room for America’s expansion and new settlements. The role of Indigenous people in the Revolutionary War stands as another chapter of United States history that is often neglected yet crucial for honest discourse and understanding.

  Millions of people participated in the Second World War‚ risking their lives to prevent the Axis Powers from achieving victory. Though most of those who fought on the front lines were men‚ many women equally carried out brave deeds during the conflict.   Ranging from undercover schemes to impressive feats of engineering‚ the actions carried out by the following women are both fascinating and inspirational. At a time when men did most of the heavy lifting in times of war‚ these five women stepped up and went beyond what was expected of them.   1. Josephine Baker A photograph of Josephine Baker‚ 1927. Source: Time   Josephine Baker was born on June 3‚ 1906 in St. Louis‚ Missouri. She came from a poor family and experienced racism from an early age.   In addition to witnessing the East St. Louis race riots in July 1917‚ racial tensions also plagued Baker’s working life. As a performer in an African-American dance troupe‚ it was difficult to find accommodation‚ for many hotels only allowed white people to stay in them.   Despite these difficulties‚ Baker clearly had a knack for the performing arts. Her talent took her to New York‚ where she became part of the Harlem Renaissance and then across the Atlantic to the French capital of Paris. Baker’s popularity grew considerably thanks to her unique performances. Soon‚ she was earning lots of money and touring many European cities.   Baker could hardly fail to notice the rise of the far-right in Europe. The fascistic movements in Italy and Germany – with their emphasis on racial supremacy and nationalism – reminded her of the racism in St. Louis. When the Nazis invaded France in May 1940‚ Baker was angered by their actions. The country that had given her so much was suffering under German occupation‚ and she wanted to fight back.   A photograph of Josephine Baker‚ c. 1930. Source: The New Yorker   So‚ when a French intelligence officer traveled to Ch&;acirc;teau des Milandes and asked Baker if she would help gather intelligence‚ she readily accepted the proposal. Due to her fame and popularity‚ Baker received invitations to many diplomatic functions where she was able to collect information on the movements and plans of the German army. After fleeing France and arriving in Portugal‚ Baker attended parties at various embassies‚ obtaining information for the French Resistance and writing it down using invisible ink when she returned to her hotel room.   However‚ Baker’s career as a spy was cut short by a string of serious health issues‚ including pneumonia and blood poisoning. After twenty-one months in hospital‚ she spent the remainder of the war performing for groups of Allied soldiers in Africa and the Middle East.   2. Elsie MacGill A photograph of Elsie MacGill working at the Canadian Car and Foundry Company‚ c. 1940. Source: Radio Canada   Just like Josephine Baker‚ Elsie MacGill didn’t fight on the front lines during the Second World War‚ but her story is nevertheless highly inspirational.   Born in 1905 in Vancouver‚ Canada‚ MacGill benefited from a middle-class upbringing and a top-tier education. In 1927‚ she became the first Canadian woman to gain a degree in Electrical Engineering‚ which she obtained from the University of Toronto. After initially working with cars‚ MacGill shifted her focus to a more exciting form of transport: aircraft.   However‚ a life-threatening disease called polio put a halt to MacGill’s career. Paralyzed from the waist down‚ she needed help with everyday tasks and battled against muscular spasms. Though MacGill never fully recovered from the disease‚ she did manage to get back on her feet and return to work.   During the Second World War‚ MacGill worked for the Canadian Car and Foundry Company (better known as Can-Car). As Chief Aeronautical Engineer‚ she oversaw the construction of the Hawker Hurricane‚ a British fighter plane. This led to her being known as the “Queen of the Hurricanes.” She even designed her own version of the plane for colder climates. With de-icing controls and a ski-based landing system‚ MacGill’s new Hawker Hurricane was perfect for winter conditions.   Outside of her wartime contributions‚ MacGill became an advocate for women’s rights‚ working as the National President of the Canadian Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Club. In honor of her achievements‚ MacGill received the Order of Canada in 1971.   3. Lyudmila Pavlichenko   Lyudmila Pavlichenko grew up in a village near Kyiv‚ the capital of Ukraine‚ which became part of the Soviet Union in December 1922.   A photograph of Lyudmila Pavlichenko‚ c.1941. Source: The Times UK   In 1932‚ Pavlichenko moved to the capital city permanently. After going to a firing range‚ she discovered a gift for marksmanship and honed her skills over the next few years. At one stage‚ she competed in a shooting tournament with twelve available prizes and won all twelve of them&;#33;   When the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941‚ Pavlichenko wanted to fight back. She proved her skills by shooting some Romanian soldiers who were working with the Nazis before joining the Red Army as part of a rifle division.   Though the majority of women in the Red Army had non-combatant roles‚ many women held jobs that put them in danger. Pavlichenko was particularly vulnerable‚ for Soviet snipers had a short life expectancy.   Nevertheless‚ she managed to avoid being killed or captured and racked up an impressive kill count. During the Siege of Odessa‚ Pavlichenko took down 187 German soldiers. She added more bodies to her kill count during the Battle of Sevastopol. But this battle would be her last. After being hit by a piece of shrapnel‚ Pavlichenko was unable to recover fully and was forced to retire.   Yet she still had a part to play during the Second World War. After an initial meeting with Joseph Stalin in the Kremlin‚ Pavlichenko traveled to America‚ hoping to raise funds for the Soviet war effort. The American press gave Pavlichenko more attention than the other Soviet delegates‚ marveling at her skills as a marksman. But many of their questions focused on her appearance and femininity rather than her heroic deeds. Citizens back home were more respectful. In 1943‚ Pavlichenko received the Hero of the Soviet Union award‚ the highest honorary distinction in the USSR.   4. Hannie Schaft A photograph of Hannie Schaft‚ c. 1942. Source: The New York Times   Hannie Schaft was an ambitious young woman who wanted to work for the League of Nations. But when the Nazis invaded the Netherlands in May 1940‚ her studies at the University of Amsterdam were no longer a priority.   Under German occupation‚ the rights of Dutch Jews gradually diminished‚ and Schaft wanted to do something about it. She started by stealing identification cards for her Jewish friends at university. This enabled them to take on fake identities and avoid anti-Semitic persecution.   When the Nazis required all Dutch university students to sign a declaration of loyalty to the occupying forces‚ Schaft –  along with the vast majority of other students – simply refused. After moving back to Haarlem to live with her parents‚ she joined a Dutch resistance group called the Raad van Verzet (RVV).   The RVV was a militant group that used guns and explosives to take down their enemies. Their primary targets were Dutch citizens who had betrayed their country and were collaborating with the Nazis. Schaft carried out sabotages and assassinations for the RVV‚ and she was so successful that she soon became a symbol of resistance known as the “Girl with Red Hair.”   Tragically‚ Schaft didn’t make it to the end of the war. She was captured at a checkpoint after she was caught carrying a pistol. When the black dye in her hair started to fade away‚ the Nazis knew who they had caught‚ and they subjected Schaft to interrogation and torture.   Just eighteen days before the Allies liberated the Netherlands‚ the Nazis executed Schaft in the dunes west of Haarlem.   5. Irena Sendler A photograph of Irena Sendler‚ c.1940. Source: Shalom Bait   Irena Sendler grew up in the Polish capital of Warsaw. Though raised in a Christian family‚ she had many Jewish friends as a child.   When the Nazis invaded Poland in September 1939‚ they soon implemented anti-Semitic policies. The situation worsened when the Nazis established the Warsaw Ghetto in November 1940. Surrounded by a ten-foot wall with barbed wire‚ the ghetto trapped 400‚000 Jews in a small area‚ isolating them from the rest of society. The conditions were appalling‚ with many starving from lack of food.   Sendler was determined to help. As a member of Warsaw’s Social Welfare Department‚ she had permission to visit the ghetto to check for signs of typhus. With support from an organization known as the Council to Aid Jews‚ Sendler used her special access to enter the ghetto to smuggle Jewish children to safety.   Some children were smuggled out using an ambulance‚ while others were hidden inside tool boxes or potato sacks. Once outside the ghetto‚ Sendler had to keep the children safe from the Nazis. She created false identity papers and disguised the rescued children as Christian orphans. She kept records of their real names and their new homes so she could keep track of where they were.   In October 1943‚ an informant told the Nazis about the rescue operation. The Gestapo arrested Sendler and tortured her for information‚ but she refused to tell them anything. Fortunately‚ the Council to Aid Jews were able to bribe the Nazis‚ who allowed their captive to avoid execution and return to safety.   When the war ended‚ Sendler tried to return the rescued children to their families. But many of their parents had been killed during the Holocaust. Instead‚ the Council to Aid Jews relocated the children to Israel to grow up in a Jewish community.

  Born to a German engineer and his Russian wife in 1895‚ Sorge lived his first years in Baku‚ a part of the Russian Empire. He grew up in Germany during a highly nationalistic time – not quite the childhood pictured for a future Communist spy. Sorge served in the German Army during the Great War. The war left him with a slight limp after being shot three times. It also shook his beliefs‚ and he admired the Bolshevik Revolution‚ so in 1919‚ he joined the German Communist Party. Always bright and determined‚ he earned his PhD in Political Science by 1925. Being a dedicated Communist‚ he joined the Soviet Comintern.   The Beginning Richard Sorge. Source: Travel Through Time   Sorge’s spying career began with Red Army intelligence in 1925‚ plus Soviet citizenship. None seemed concerned by his excess drinking or womanizing. He traveled to England to study the local Communist Party‚ and next came Shanghai and Nanking‚ spying on the Chinese Nationalists as a journalist.   Sorge met Japanese contacts in China‚ especially the Japanese journalist Ozaki Hotsumi‚ whose Imperial Government connections would prove valuable. He returned to Germany in 1933 with orders to become a Nazi. He was the consummate actor‚ charming higher-level Nazis enough to prevent a background check‚ keeping his Communist past hidden. Had Nazi officials known‚ he’d have been arrested and shot. Sorge even stopped drinking and womanizing during this act. Meanwhile‚ he married Katya‚ a woman he met in China. The Soviets sent Sorge to Japan‚ seen as their biggest threat‚ to establish a spy ring. This time‚ he’d been hired by two newspapers as their senior correspondent.   The Comintern logo Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Comintern sent three agents to help‚ and Sorge recruited his friend Ozaki. Now‚ Ozaki was a member of the Prime Minister’s cabinet. Their goal was to find out: did Japan want war with the Soviets&;#63; Sorge seemed like a hardcore Nazi‚ which aided his cover. Japan would not be easy like China; the Kempetai‚ or secret police‚ actively hunted foreign agents. Later‚ they would detect the spy ring’s coded radio signals‚ but never locate them.    Richard Sorge and the Tokyo Ring Richard Sorge in his later years. Source: Amantes de la Historia   Sorge quickly inserted himself into Tokyo’s German expat society. His suaveness‚ fluent Japanese‚ and social familiarity only made the transition smoother. With his journalist credentials‚ he befriended the German ambassador‚ Japanese military‚ and diplomats. They saw him as a typical Nazi – cynical‚ hard-drinking but intelligent‚ despite many flaws such as womanizing. Besides Japan‚ the ring traveled around the Empire‚ watching and learning. Sorge’s network yielded results very quickly– the first in 1936 from smuggled documents.   The documents showed Japan’s focus on China‚ not the Soviet Union‚ and he reported this to the German ambassador‚ which enhanced his reputation. By 1938‚ German officials routinely asked his opinion on Japanese matters. He even traveled with German diplomatic bags‚ allowing him to smuggle information destined for Moscow.   Sorge’s spy ring efforts paid off again in 1938. Japan and the Soviets clashed many times in Manchuria. The Soviets worried now about a bigger war‚ given the Nazi’s harsh anti-Communist rhetoric. Sorge’s German sources said Japan wouldn’t attack Russia. His Japanese spies also provided evidence of Japanese troop movements‚ which was radioed to a station in Siberia.   Japan Map Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the late 1930s‚ the Soviet Union faced dual threats in Germany and Japan. Since defeating Imperial Russia in 1904‚ Japan steadily expanded deep into Asia. Now‚ both powers shared a long common border. Sorge’s biggest coup came in early 1941; Germany’s Operation Barbarossa lanced deep into the Soviet Union‚ and many thought game over. Desperate to know Japan’s intentions‚ Sorge and company sniffed‚ murmured‚ and eavesdropped for information.   Sorge’s access to the German records‚ plus his friend Ozaki’s closeness to Japan’s government‚ revealed no desire for war. Germany’s invasion faced hard going despite their wins‚ so Japan turned south. Sorge radioed this to Moscow. Their evidence possibly changed everything. With Siberia safe‚ Stalin transferred thousands of troops to stop the Nazis outside Moscow‚ saving the Soviet Union.    The Game Concluded Richard Sorge monument in Baku. Source: Trip Advisor   Sorge’s activities came with a price. The dreaded Kempetai‚ suspicious of a surge in encrypted radio traffic‚ knew a spy ring operated in Tokyo. Sorge was arrested along with his ring‚ confessed his Soviet connections‚ and was executed in 1944. He was a master spy with few peers‚ remaining undetected for years‚ but Sorge did have decency and made a deal. In return for confessing‚ he asked that women involved in the ring be released; the Kempetai complied.

  After the US Civil War began in April 1861‚ the Union placed a naval blockade around the Confederacy to prevent international trade and weaken its economy. One year later‚ after the Confederacy proved itself tough and resilient‚ the Union began retaking territory to increase the pressure to surrender. One major prize was the South’s most populous city: New Orleans. Could it be captured&;#63;   Victory Goes to the Union Union naval officer David Farragut (above) famously captured New Orleans in 1862 and aided in the capture of Vicksburg‚ Mississippi in 1863. Source: Library of Congress   The largest city of the Confederacy‚ New Orleans‚ was key to stopping Southern international trade and gaining control of the Mississippi River‚ which flowed into the Gulf of Mexico at the city. After the Battle of Fort Sumter in April 1861‚ the Union had placed a naval embargo around the South in what was known as the Anaconda Plan. The goal was to “strangle” the Confederate economy by denying it the ability to trade with Europe‚ especially the exporting of cotton and tobacco to Britain and France. However‚ critics thought the plan was too slow‚ and the First Battle of Bull Run revealed that the Confederacy was prepared to fight hard for independence.   As the Civil War dragged on‚ the Union looked to capture New Orleans. At first‚ it had been avoided due to the protection of two coastal forts: Jackson and St. Philip. After careful surveillance of the defenses‚ Captain David Farragut decided to attack. Massive bombardments hit both forts and eventually‚ the Union was able to sink Confederate barges that had strung chains across the Mississippi River. With the chains sunk‚ Farragut’s fleet forced its way between the two forts during frantic bombardments. On April 25‚ 1862‚ Farragut anchored in front of the city of New Orleans‚ capturing the first major Confederate city during the war.   Timeline of the Battle of New Orleans A painting of the naval bombardment of New Orleans between April 24 and 25‚ 1862. Source: Library of Congress via Liberty Fund Network   On April 16‚ 1862‚ Captain David Farragut moved his fleet into place south of New Orleans to scout out the situation. The fleet included specialized mortar boats to fire artillery at the two coastal forts‚ Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip.   On April 18‚ the first bombardment began‚ with a second bombardment the next day. Though damaged‚ both Confederate forts withstood the bombardment. In the meantime‚ Farragut had to decide what to do about barges stretching chains across the Mississippi River‚ preventing ships from sailing up it and into New Orleans. Initial attempts to sink the chain barges were unsuccessful‚ so Farragut continued his bombardment of the fort.   A hand-drawn map of Confederate fort defenses of New Orleans prior to the beginning of the Battle of New Orleans on April 24‚ 1862. Source: Library of Congress   After five days of bombardment‚ the Union finally opened up the chains blocking the river‚ and Farragut’s fleet surged through during the pre-dawn hours of April 24. As the Union ships passed between the two forts‚ they engaged in intense firefights with the forts and Confederate ships.   The next day‚ Farragut was anchored at New Orleans‚ and on April 28‚ forts Jackson and St. Philip finally surrendered after continued Union bombardments.   By May 1‚ Union troops entered New Orleans unopposed‚ seizing the first major (and largest) Confederate city.   What Caused the Battle of New Orleans&;#63; Great Naval Battle at New Orleans‚ April 24‚ 1862 engraved by George E. Perine after an original drawing. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   The Confederacy was at a major economic disadvantage compared to the Union: it had a smaller population with little immigration to bolster it‚ relatively little industry‚ and relatively little transportation infrastructure. One of its few hopes of sustaining the Civil War long enough to win independence was its cotton and tobacco trade with Britain and France. The Confederate States of America desperately sought formal diplomatic recognition from those two European powers‚ as that might lead to military aid. Seizing the Confederacy’s largest port would severely limit its ability to smuggle exported cotton and tobacco to Europe and transport weapons from abroad.   Union Navy commander David Dixon Porter began crafting a plan to capture New Orleans while watching it from the Union’s naval blockade. Capturing the city would also give the Union access to the lower part of the Mississippi River and deny use of it to the Confederacy‚ preventing them from moving troops and supplies north or south. Time was of the essence‚ as it was rumored that the Confederates were building new ironclad ships to defend the area. The Union needed to strike quickly before additional defenses could be made to the city.   Why Was the Battle of New Orleans Significant&;#63; An 1885 rendering of New Orleans showing its size and ability to conduct trade. Source: United States Census Bureau   New Orleans was the Confederacy’s largest and most cosmopolitan city‚ with some 120‚000 to 170‚000 residents‚ foreign diplomats‚ and regular pre-war trade with Europe and Mexico. Capturing it would be a tremendous blow to the Confederacy‚ both in terms of physical power and psychologically. Like the later Battle of Atlanta‚ losing control of a major city representative of Southern culture would erode the South’s morale. Conversely‚ seizing the city would greatly boost Union morale‚ which had sunk after the First Battle of Bull Run.   A recent Union victory at the Battle of Shiloh‚ which revealed that the Union could gain territory in the Western Theater even if it could not successfully move against the Confederate capital of Richmond‚ Virginia‚ would be bolstered in the Northern press by seizing New Orleans. Union President Abraham Lincoln needed significant victories in the war to reduce public pressure to accept Southern demands for independence – many citizens in the North had no desire to fight to prevent the South from seceding. Capturing a “crown jewel” of the Confederacy would help bolster Lincoln’s efforts to maintain the union.   5 Facts About the Battle of New Orleans Union rear admiral David Farragut (right)‚ famous for capturing New Orleans in 1862‚ coined the famous phrase “damn the torpedoes‚ full speed ahead” in 1864. Source: US Naval Institute (USNI).   1. Casualties There were few casualties in the battle. Only four Confederate defenders in forts Jackson and St. Philip were killed during the four-day bombardment‚ with fourteen more wounded. During Farragut’s push through the forts‚ as he sailed upriver to New Orleans‚ the naval battle saw roughly 140 Confederate sailors killed versus only about 40 Union sailors killed. Both sides reported approximately 170 wounded during the naval engagement. There were no casualties when occupying the city‚ as Confederate troops had left by the time Union admiral David Farragut arrived on April 25‚ 1862.   2. Commanders The Union commander was Captain David Farragut‚ son of a Revolutionary War veteran who had immigrated to South Carolina from Spanish territory in 1776. Farragut was adopted at a young age by a military family in New Orleans and soon moved to Washington DC. As a boy‚ he began sailing on naval ships with his adoptive father. Not long after‚ as a young teenager‚ Farragut served during the War of 1812. As a Spanish speaker‚ he secured a naval command during the Mexican-American War. After the war‚ now at the then-highest US naval rank of captain‚ Farragut established the first naval base on the West Coast in California.   With both land and naval forces‚ the Confederate command in New Orleans was split among different officers and did not work efficiently. Ultimately‚ the highest-ranking officer was Major General Mansfield Lovell‚ a West Point graduate and Mexican-American War veteran. While Farragut had been born in the South and moved to the North‚ Lovell did the opposite and resigned his employment in New York City when the Civil War began. In October 1861‚ Lovell was appointed commander of New Orleans. While the capture of New Orleans made Farragut a hero‚ Lovell’s failure to prevent its capture ended the man’s military career; he was reduced to serving as a “volunteer staff officer” under General Joseph E. Johnston.   3. Number of Forces Involved As the defenders‚ the Confederates had roughly 1‚200 soldiers between the two coastal forts of Jackson and St. Philip. In addition‚ there were hundreds of sailors on the dozens of Confederate boats stationed nearby. To defend the city of New Orleans itself‚ General Mansfield Lovell was left with only about 3‚000 short-term volunteer soldiers after recent Confederate losses elsewhere (part of the Shiloh campaign) caused the military command to utilize them away from New Orleans‚ which was not thought to be under threat.   The Union had hundreds of sailors on Farragut’s fleet of over forty ships‚ although only twenty-four warships actually entered the city’s harbor‚ plus 15‚000 infantry ready to disembark at New Orleans. After passing the coastal forts‚ these 15‚000 soldiers faced no resistance and occupied the city.   4. Visiting New Orleans coastal forts Visitors today can visit New Orleans and take guided tours about the city’s Civil War history. However‚ since no actual battle took place in the historic city‚ Civil War buffs would do better to visit Fort Jackson‚ which tried to prevent Farragut’s fleet from sailing past. Unfortunately‚ Fort St. Philip has sustained significant damage over the years due to flooding and coastal erosion. It is privately owned and unavailable to visit. However‚ those visiting New Orleans can get a double dose of military history: the Battle of New Orleans is often remembered in the context of the War of 1812‚ where Andrew Jackson defeated British attempts to seize the city in January 1815.   5. Trivia: Creation of the Rank of Admiral Capturing New Orleans‚ especially with minimal bloodshed‚ made Union naval captain David Farragut a hero. At the time‚ there was no rank of admiral‚ with those considered above the rank of a traditional captain‚ as Farragut was‚ labeled “Flag Officers.” In honor of his victory at New Orleans‚ Flag Officer Farragut was made the nation’s first rear admiral. Later victories at Vicksburg‚ Mississippi (1863) and Mobile Bay‚ Alabama (1864) saw Farragut further promoted to the first vice admiral and admiral of the United States Navy.   Aftermath of the Battle of New Orleans Union general Benjamin Butler occupied New Orleans and courted controversy due to the political nature of the city and its occupation. Source: Virginia Humanities   Because Flag Officer David Farragut was a naval officer‚ the Union ground forces were commanded by General Benjamin Butler‚ who was tasked with occupying New Orleans. Butler was perhaps one of the most controversial general officers of the Civil War and had little military experience prior to the Battle of Fort Sumter. Despite Butler’s often-criticized physical appearance and lack of military background‚ he proved an able administrator. Although hated by many Southerners‚ Butler successfully improved the health‚ welfare‚ and public order of the war-addled city. His aggressive tactics in maintaining public order‚ which he had used in Baltimore‚ Maryland in 1861‚ provoked significant controversy in New Orleans within weeks of his arrival.   After many women had harassed occupying Union troops during the days following the city’s surrender‚ Butler passed the “woman order” (General Orders 28) on May 15‚ 1862. This order stated that women engaging in harassment of Union soldiers would be considered prostitutes and thus subject to arrest. This sparked outrage throughout the Confederacy‚ in the European press‚ and even received some criticism in the North. The “Beast” Butler‚ as he was nicknamed after the controversial order‚ was soon replaced. However‚ his order worked to stop the harassment‚ and Butler was allegedly even courted to join President Abraham Lincoln on his 1864 ticket as vice president.

  On a cold winter’s day in December 1805‚ Emperor Napoleon won his most famous victory at the Battle of Austerlitz‚ humbling the emperors of Austria and Russia. After another triumph over the Russians at Friedland in June 1807‚ Napoleon made peace with Tsar Alexander at Tilsit in July. Despite the cordial friendship that developed between the two emperors‚ the Franco-Russian alliance soon began to fracture. This led to Napoleon’s ill-fated invasion of Russia in 1812 and Alexander’s efforts to build a coalition that would occupy Paris and force Napoleon to abdicate.   The Meeting on the Raft Entrevue des deux empereurs by Louis Jean Allais after Jean-Baptiste Debret‚ between 1807 and 1818. Source: British Museum‚ London   On June 25‚ 1807‚ the French and Russian armies gathered on opposite banks of the River Neman at the east Prussian town of Tilsit (now Sovetsk‚ Kaliningrad Oblast‚ Russia). Less than two weeks earlier‚ on June 14‚ the French army under Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte had won a crushing victory over General Levin August Bennigsen’s Russians at Friedland. Although Tsar Alexander I of Russia was personally leading two fresh army corps towards the theater of war‚ Friedland prompted the Russian ruler to sue for peace.   The two emperors were to meet in a tent on a raft in the middle of the Neman. As the tsar stepped onto the raft to greet his French counterpart‚ he remarked‚ “Sire‚ I hate the British as much as you.” Upon hearing this‚ Napoleon replied‚ “In that case… peace is made.” (Asprey‚ 2001‚ p. 75)   The two men were immediately attracted to each other. Alexander aspired to military glory and admired Napoleon’s conquests‚ and the latter offered him a corps command in a future war. Napoleon was enchanted by the tsar’s youthful charms and would later write to his wife Josephine‚ “If Tsar Alexander were a woman‚ I would make him my mistress.” (Asprey‚ 2001‚ p. 128)   It would take two weeks to hammer out the details of the Treaty of Tilsit‚ which was signed on July 7. While Russia was obliged to join the Continental System – the trade embargo Napoleon imposed on Britain in an effort to starve his foes into submission – Alexander avoided significant territorial concessions. The tsar’s ally‚ the Kingdom of Prussia‚ was not so fortunate‚ having its eastern (Polish) provinces carved out to form the Duchy of Warsaw‚ a French client state.   Napoleon Bonaparte The Coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David‚ 1807. Source: Louvre Museum‚ Paris   Napoleon Bonaparte and Tsar Alexander I’s backgrounds could not be more different. Bonaparte was born to a minor noble family in Corsica in 1769‚ a year after the island was sold to France by Genoa. After receiving his military education in France‚ Napoleon rapidly rose up the ranks following the Revolution of 1789‚ announcing himself on the international stage in 1796 by leading a brilliant campaign against the Austrians in northern Italy.   In 1798‚ Bonaparte was sent to Egypt in an attempt to disrupt Britain’s communications with India. Despite initial successes‚ Napoleon’s army was trapped in Egypt when the French fleet was destroyed by Admiral Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile. After a failed attempt to fight his way through Syria and Palestine‚ General Bonaparte left Egypt and slipped past the Royal Navy to arrive in France in August 1799. In early November‚ he overthrew the French government in a coup and installed himself as First Consul of the French Republic.   First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte set about consolidating his power after the decade of political turmoil unleashed by the revolution. After reconquering Italy from the Austrians‚ he made peace with them in February 1801. Later that year‚ he reached a settlement with the Pope on the status of the Catholic Church in France. In early 1802‚ France and Britain also came to terms at the Treaty of Amiens. By the spring of 1804‚ Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor‚ and he was crowned in a ceremony at Notre Dame Cathedral on December 2‚ 1804.   Tsar Alexander I Alexander I‚ Emperor of Russia by George Dawe‚ 1818-25. Source: Royal Collection Trust‚ London   Born into the House of Romanov in 1777‚ Tsar Alexander I was the grandson of Empress Catherine the Great (1762-96) and the son of Tsar Paul I (1796-1801). While Catherine and Paul hated each other‚ Alexander inherited his grandmother’s liberal views and his father’s fondness for military parade. After his accession to the throne in 1796‚ Paul reversed many of his mother’s policies. He admired the stern order of the Prussian army and attempted to introduce Prussian uniforms and discipline to his army‚ alienating many officers in the process. In March 1801‚ disgruntled Russian officers overthrew and murdered Paul in a coup.   Although he supported the coup‚ Alexander did not expect his father to be killed in the process and briefly considered renouncing the throne. Having received an education inspired by the Enlightenment‚ Alexander and a group of his young friends attempted to introduce liberal reforms but struggled to make progress in the face of opposition from conservative aristocrats.   The Sun of Austerlitz The Battle of Austerlitz by Fran&;ccedil;ois G&;eacute;rard‚ 1810. Source: Palace of Versailles   Although both Napoleon and Alexander preferred to focus on domestic reforms‚ by 1805‚ France and Russia were at war. The Peace of Amiens proved short-lived‚ and hostilities between Britain and France resumed in May 1803. In January 1804‚ Napoleon uncovered a plot by royalists to overthrow him. He believed the plotters hoped to install the Duc d’Enghien‚ a young French aristocrat‚ as the new king. Napoleon sent troops over the border to abduct the duke and take him to France‚ where he was executed on March 21‚ 1804.   D’Enghien had been taking refuge in the Grand Duchy of Baden‚ ruled by Alexander’s father-in-law‚ and his kidnapping and murder prompted a diplomatic protest from the tsar. The following year‚ Russia joined Austria and Britain in the Third Coalition against France. The Austrians planned to invade France through Bavaria with two Russian armies in support. In August‚ after French admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve failed to break through to the English Channel to support an invasion of Britain‚ Napoleon turned his army eastwards to confront the Austrians.   Portrait of Mikhail Kutuzov by George Dawe‚ 1829. Source: State Hermitage Museum‚ St. Petersburg   In a lightning campaign‚ Napoleon surprised Austrian General Karl Mack at Ulm in Bavaria and forced over 40‚000 Austrians to surrender on October 19. Upon learning of Mack’s defeat‚ Russian commander Mikhail Kutuzov hurried back along the Danube valley and successfully joined up with the second Russian column to restore allied numerical superiority. Although Kutuzov was reluctant to assume the offensive‚ the tsar and his entourage of ambitious young officers saw an opportunity to humble the Corsican upstart.   The Battle of Austerlitz was fought on December 2‚ 1805‚ the anniversary of Napoleon’s coronation. On the eve of the battle‚ Napoleon withdrew Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult’s IV Corps from the Pratzen Heights and left his right flank weak to encourage the allies to attack. On Napoleon’s right‚ Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout’s III Corps arrived during the night and used the terrain to their advantage to blunt the momentum of the allied attack. Once the allied center was sufficiently weakened‚ Napoleon ordered the IV Corps to seize the Pratzen Heights. The “Sun of Austerlitz” burned away the morning mist‚ revealing Soult’s men marching up the heights and throwing the coalition army into confusion. After overcoming a fierce counterattack from the Russian Guards‚ Napoleon sealed his most famous victory‚ while Alexander was seen weeping after the battle.   An Uneasy Alliance The Imperial Embrace on the Raft by Charles Williams‚ 1807. Source: British Museum‚ London   While the Austrians sued for peace after Austerlitz‚ Alexander continued the fight and joined the Prussians in the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. The main Prussian field armies were annihilated by Napoleon and his marshals at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt on October 14‚ 1806‚ and the remnants retreated eastwards to join up with the Russians. During the winter of 1806-07‚ General Bennigsen maneuvered skillfully to keep Napoleon at bay‚ but on June 14‚ 1807‚ his luck ran out when his army was trapped in front of the Alle River at Friedland.   Despite the personal chemistry between Napoleon and Alexander at Tilsit‚ the Franco-Russian alliance that emerged proved an uneasy one. In 1808-09‚ Russia went to war against Sweden‚ bringing Sweden into the Continental System and annexing Finland to Russia in the process. When the Austrians declared war on France in early 1809‚ Alexander delayed sending Napoleon reinforcements‚ ensuring that the Russians avoided most of the fighting by the time Napoleon won his decisive victory at Wagram in July.   When Napoleon annexed Austria’s Polish territories to the Duchy of Warsaw‚ Alexander was increasingly alarmed that the French Emperor would support the full restoration of Polish nationhood. He regarded the Duchy of Warsaw as a dagger pointed at the heart of the Russian Empire. Meanwhile‚ the ban on British trade was hurting the Russian economy‚ and in 1810‚ Alexander resumed trade with the British. Both France and Russia began to prepare for the resumption of war.   The Campaign of 1812 The Battle of the Moskova (Borodino) by Louis-Fran&;ccedil;ois Lejeune‚ 1822. Source: Palace of Versailles   On June 24‚ 1812‚ Napoleon crossed the Neman at Kaunas in Lithuania at the head of an army of more than half a million men. Napoleon was determined to bring the Russian army to battle‚ secure a decisive victory before the end of summer‚ and make a favorable peace treaty with Alexander.   The tsar was equally determined to resist. In 1811‚ he informed the French ambassador Armand de Caulaincourt that even if defeated in battle‚ “I should retire to Kamchatka rather than cede provinces.” (Caulaincourt‚ 1935‚ p. 6). In a proclamation the day after Napoleon’s invasion‚ Alexander announced that he would not lay down his arms until the last enemy soldier was expelled from his realm.   Although Alexander was with the Russian army at headquarters at the beginning of the campaign‚ he was persuaded by his generals to leave the front to rally his subjects in Moscow. Alexander duly handed over command to General Mikhail Barclay de Tolly. Barclay had been Minister of War since 1810 and led reforms to improve the effectiveness of the Russian army. With fewer than 200‚000 Russian troops on the western border‚ Barclay knew he had to preserve his manpower and avoid battle until numerical parity.   Portrait of Mikhail Barclay de Tolly by George Dawe‚ 1829. Source: State Hermitage Museum‚ St. Petersburg   As the Russians retreated towards Moscow‚ Napoleon’s supply lines stretched longer and longer. However‚ Barclay’s decision to abandon large amounts of Russian territory with minimal resistance prompted Alexander to appoint General Kutuzov as supreme commander. On September 7‚ 1812‚ Kutuzov fought Napoleon to a standstill at the Battle of Borodino‚ but heavy Russian losses obliged him to abandon Moscow to the enemy.   Napoleon entered Moscow in triumph a week later‚ expecting the tsar to sue for peace. Instead‚ he encountered a largely empty city in flames. As the days passed‚ Napoleon’s men were running out of supplies‚ and the emperor sent Alexander two letters inviting him to peace talks. Alexander refused to reply. The tsar was planning an ambitious strategic maneuver with three armies converging on Belarus from north‚ south‚ and east to cut off Napoleon’s retreat.   After languishing in Moscow for over a month‚ Napoleon decided to leave the ancient Russian capital in mid-October. An attempt to break through to the south to resupply his army was foiled at the Battle of Maloyaroslavets on October 24‚ forcing Napoleon to retreat westwards along the road already devastated by war. The winter snows devastated both armies‚ but the French were worse-equipped to deal with the cold. In late November 1812‚ as Alexander had planned‚ three Russian armies under General Pyotr Wittgenstein‚ Admiral Pavel Chichagov‚ and Field Marshal Kutuzov were poised to surround Napoleon at the Berezina River. Napoleon managed to escape the trap with 30‚000 men.   The Sixth Coalition At the Battlefield near Leipzig by Johann Peter Krafft‚ 1839. Source: German Historical Museum‚ Berlin   In January 1813‚ Alexander declared victory over Napoleon in “the Patriotic War of 1812.” However‚ although most of his generals wanted to return home‚ Alexander believed that Napoleon continued to pose a threat to Russia as long as he remained on his throne. He saw an opportunity to take advantage of Napoleon’s weakness and lead a coalition to overthrow Napoleon in order to achieve a lasting peace.   In February 1813‚ Russia and Prussia signed an alliance to form the Sixth Coalition with Britain‚ and the allied armies duly liberated northern Germany from Napoleonic rule in early spring. By May‚ Napoleon was back on the field with a new army of 200‚000 men. Although he managed to defeat the allies at L&;uuml;tzen and Bautzen in Saxony‚ he lacked the cavalry force to effectively exploit these victories. Nevertheless‚ Napoleon’s resurgence sufficiently alarmed Alexander and prompted him to seek assistance from Crown Prince Karl Johan of Sweden‚ formerly Marshal Bernadotte of France.   In early June 1813‚ Napoleon accepted an armistice and Austrian mediation. When Napoleon rejected Austrian terms proposed by Count Metternich‚ Austria joined the Sixth Coalition in August. While the Austrian general Prince Karl Philipp von Schwarzenberg assumed supreme command‚ Alexander continued to serve as political leader of the coalition. An impressive victory by Napoleon over Schwarzenberg at Dresden in late August failed to compensate for defeats by French marshals on other fronts.   Equestrian Portrait of Joachim Murat‚ King of Naples by Antoine-Jean Gros‚ 1808/1812. Source: Louvre Museum‚ Paris   On October 16‚ Napoleon faced Schwarzenberg’s Army of Bohemia at Leipzig while two more allied armies under Bernadotte and Prussian general Gebhard von Bl&;uuml;cher were approaching from the north. In order to stand any chance of survival‚ Napoleon had to defeat Schwarzenberg before the allied reinforcements arrived. Without waiting for orders‚ Napoleon’s brother-in-law and cavalry commander Marshal Joachim Murat led a formidable charge against the allied center with 5‚000 heavy cavalrymen‚ targeting the hill on which the three allied monarchs were standing. A timely Russian hussar charge into Murat’s flank blunted his momentum‚ and the tsar personally ordered his Life-Guard Cossack Regiment to exploit the success‚ forcing Murat to retreat. The arrival of allied reinforcements over the following days forced Napoleon to withdraw from Leipzig on the 19th.   Napoleon Dethroned Napoleon’s abdication at Fontainebleau by Fran&;ccedil;ois Bouchot‚ 1845. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   After his defeat at Leipzig‚ Napoleon abandoned his claims to Germany and sought to rebuild his army to defend France. Although the allied armies were exhausted‚ the tsar overcame Austrian reluctance as the allies invaded France in January 1814.   Napoleon had fewer than 50‚000 men under his command against the coalition army bearing down on Paris. The allies divided their armies into two columns‚ one under the cautious Schwarzenberg and the other under the aggressive Bl&;uuml;cher. Taking advantage of the agility of his smaller army‚ Napoleon held Schwarzenberg back while dealing Bl&;uuml;cher four defeats in six days between February 10 and 15.   It seemed as though the emperor was once again the young General Napoleon Bonaparte of his First Italian Campaign‚ but the numerical odds were too long. In late March‚ Napoleon tried to entice Schwarzenberg into following him to prevent the allies from entering Paris. Alexander persuaded the Austrian general to send 150‚000 men under Barclay de Tolly toward Paris while an allied cavalry detachment continued to harass Napoleon.   After a few days of resistance‚ Paris surrendered to the allies on March 31‚ and Tsar Alexander entered Paris in triumph at the head of the coalition army. On April 2‚ the French Senate declared Napoleon deposed. Napoleon briefly attempted to rally his men but was soon persuaded that his cause was lost. He abdicated unconditionally on April 6‚ and the terms were confirmed at the Treaty of Fontainebleau on April 11‚ 1814. A mere eighteen months earlier‚ he had been in the Kremlin in Moscow.   Bibliography   Asprey‚ R. (2001). The Reign of Napoleon Bonaparte. Basic Books.   Caulaincourt‚ A. (1935). With Napoleon in Russia: The Memoirs of General Caulaincourt‚ Duke of Vicenza. William Morrow and Company.   Chandler‚ D. (1995). The Campaigns of Napoleon. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. (Original work published 1966)   Lieven‚ D. (2010). Russia Against Napoleon. Penguin Books. (Original work published 2009)

  In May 1804‚ after being proclaimed Emperor of the French‚ Napoleon Bonaparte awarded the title of Marshal of the French Empire to eighteen of his generals. He would go on to appoint another eight marshals before his second abdication in 1815. While Napoleon is often considered the greatest military commander of his time‚ many of his marshals were brilliant military leaders in their own right. This article highlights the careers of five of these men.   1. Louis-Nicolas Davout: The Iron Marshal Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout (1770-1823) by Tito Marzocchi de Belluci after Pierre Gautherot‚ 1852-59. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout is often considered Napoleon’s greatest subordinate commander. A strict disciplinarian who earned the nickname “Iron Marshal‚” he was a master of defensive warfare‚ and his men often saw the heaviest fighting in Napoleon’s greatest victories.   Born in 1770 to a minor noble family‚ Davout was a junior officer in King Louis XVI’s army at the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. He was an enthusiastic supporter of revolutionary ideas and became a general in 1793 but was then imprisoned due to his aristocratic origins. Upon his return to the army in 1794‚ he befriended General Louis Desaix in Germany and accompanied him on General Bonaparte’s Egyptian Campaign in 1798. Davout and Desaix returned to France in March 1800‚ but the latter was killed at the Battle of Marengo in June.   When Napoleon re-established the marshalate in 1804‚ Davout was the youngest officer to be awarded the title. While his fellow marshals believed he was too inexperienced‚ Davout soon put any doubts to rest in 1805. During the run-up to the Battle of Austerlitz‚ Davout led his III Corps on a forced march from Vienna and arrived on the morning of the day of battle on 2 December‚ covering 70 miles in less than two days. His 10‚000 men bore the brunt of the Austro-Russian army’s attacks against the villages of Telnitz and Sokolnitz on Napoleon’s right but managed to hold on and allow Marshal Soult’s IV Corps to strike the decisive blow against the allied center.   Napoleon gives his orders to the marshals of the empire‚ the morning of the Battle of Austerlitz by Carle Vernet‚ 1808. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   Marshal Davout’s greatest hour came on October 14‚ 1806 in battle against the Prussians. Napoleon believed that the main Prussian army was concentrated around Jena and issued orders accordingly. While Napoleon did defeat a Prussian army at Jena‚ some ten miles to the north at Auerstedt Davout’s III Corps ran into the Duke of Brunswick’s main Prussian army of 65‚000 men. Despite being outnumbered almost three-to-one‚ Davout not only repulsed the Prussian attacks but launched a successful counterattack after Brunswick was mortally wounded‚ driving the Prussians from the field.   Following his heroics at Auerstedt‚ Davout continued to distinguish himself in battle against Prussia’s Russian allies in 1807‚ with his timely arrival at Eylau in February saving Napoleon from likely defeat‚ and at the decisive Battle of Friedland in June‚ he turned the Russian left. In the spring of 1809‚ when Austria resumed hostilities against Napoleon‚ Davout’s victory over Archduke Charles at Eckm&;uuml;hl on April 22‚ 1809 turned the tide of the campaign in Napoleon’s favor‚ culminating in a close-fought but decisive victory at Wagram on July 5-6.   The Battle of Krasny on 5 (17) November 1812 by Peter von Hess‚ 1859. Source: State Hermitage Museum‚ Russia   Like most of the French army‚ Davout and his men suffered terribly during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812. Although the Iron Marshal’s I Corps managed to break the Russian front line at the Battle of Borodino on September 7‚ Napoleon did not effectively exploit the breakthrough‚ allowing the Russians to retreat beyond Moscow in good order. After Napoleon withdrew from Moscow in October‚ Davout led the rearguard and sustained heavy losses at the Battle of Vyazma on November 3. Later that month‚ he suffered another mauling at Krasny‚ where his marshal’s baton was captured by Russian Cossacks.   In the campaigns of 1813-14‚ Marshal Davout was relegated to commanding the besieged French garrison at Hamburg‚ where he held out until after Napoleon’s abdication in April 1814. He was appointed Minister of War during Napoleon’s Hundred Days in 1815‚ and after Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo‚ he made a show of resistance in defense of Paris but soon came to terms. He died in June 1823 at the age of 53.   2. Jean Lannes: The French Achilles Marshal Jean Lannes‚ Duke of Montebello by Jean-Charles-Nicaise Perrin‚ 1805-09. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   A brave soldier and inspirational leader‚ Marshal Jean Lannes is ranked alongside Marshal Davout as one of the two greatest fighting generals among Napoleon’s subordinates. He was a personal friend of the emperor‚ and his death in May 1809 left the emperor bereft.   Born in Gascony in April 1769 to a family of modest means‚ Lannes was four months older than Napoleon. The two met during Bonaparte’s First Italian campaign of 1796-97 and soon became close friends. After accompanying Napoleon to Egypt‚ Lannes joined him on his return to France in 1799 and was given command of the consular guard after the latter took power in November. At the Battle of Marengo on June 14‚ Lannes commanded the French right and fell under heavy pressure before General Desaix arrived with reinforcements to turn the tide of battle.   In the 1805 campaign‚ Lannes commanded V Corps‚ serving as leader of the vanguard alongside Marshal Joachim Murat. On the French left at Austerlitz‚ Lannes repelled an attack from Prince Bagration’s Russians before forcing the Russian general to fall back.   Marshal Lannes’ career reached a peak during the War of the Fourth Coalition against Prussia and Russia in 1806-07. At the Battle of Jena‚ Lannes commanded Napoleon’s center and was the first to engage Prince Hohenlohe’s Prussians. At Friedland on June 14‚ 1807 he enticed Bennigsen across the River Alle to engage him in battle. With only 10‚000 men at the start of the engagement‚ Lannes fought an effective defensive action and allowed Napoleon to bring reinforcements into action‚ trapping Bennigsen against the river and gaining a decisive victory that ended the campaign.   Marshal Lannes’ last moments at the battle of Essling‚ 22 May 1809 by Albert-Paul Bourgeois‚ after 1810. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   In late 1808‚ following the outbreak of the Peninsular War‚ Lannes was transferred to Spain and captured Zaragoza after a brutal siege in February 1809. Following renewed hostilities with Habsburg Austria‚ Napoleon recalled Lannes as the commander of a new II Corps. At the Battle of Ratisbon on April 23‚ Lannes rallied his men to scale a breach in the city walls by personally taking hold of a ladder. His men advanced out of shame and soon overwhelmed the defenders.   Having seized the initiative‚ Napoleon’s troops advanced down the Danube and occupied Vienna on May 13. With Archduke Charles’s Austrians deployed on the plain across the Danube‚ Marshal Lannes crossed the river at Aspern on May 21. On the morning of the 22‚ Lannes’ men were on the verge of breaking through the Austrian center when they were thrown back by a strong counterattack led by the archduke. Napoleon ordered his army to retreat‚ and Lannes was obliged to fight a rearguard action. That afternoon‚ he was mortally wounded by an Austrian cannonball which shattered his legs‚ dying on May 31 at the age of 40.   3. Andr&;eacute; Mass&;eacute;na: Dear Child of Victory Marshal Andr&;eacute; Mass&;eacute;na‚ Duke of Rivoli‚ Prince of Essling by Edm&;eacute;-Adolphe Fontaine after Antoine-Jean Gros‚ 1852-59. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   When Napoleon created the marshalate in 1804‚ Andr&;eacute; Mass&;eacute;na was surprised to learn that there were eighteen men on the list. As one of the most successful generals of the French Revolutionary Wars‚ Mass&;eacute;na was disappointed that he had to share his glory with so many other men.   Mass&;eacute;na was born in 1758 in Nice‚ then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia‚ and grew up speaking Italian. Nevertheless‚ he joined the French army and had already served in French uniform for over a decade when revolution broke out. In 1796‚ he performed brilliantly as Napoleon’s subordinate in Italy during the campaign of 1796-97‚ spearheading the French attack that defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Rivoli on January 14‚ 1797 before defeating a final Austrian attempt to relieve the Siege of Mantua at La Favorita. For these exploits‚ Bonaparte hailed Mass&;eacute;na as “the dear child of victory.”   In 1798‚ while Bonaparte was away in Egypt‚ Mass&;eacute;na commanded the Army of Switzerland. Although Russian Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov’s blistering campaign in Italy exposed Mass&;eacute;na’s southern flank and obliged him to evacuate Zurich in June 1799‚ in late September‚ he retook Zurich after defeating General Rimsky-Korsakov’s Russians before they could be reinforced by Suvorov. After Napoleon came to power‚ Mass&;eacute;na was given command of the Army of Italy. From April to June 1800‚ he held on desperately in Genoa while besieged by the Austrians. By the time Mass&;eacute;na agreed terms on June 4‚ Napoleon surprised the Austrians by crossing the Alps into northern Italy‚ defeating them at Marengo ten days later.   Second Battle of Zurich‚ 25 September 1799 by Fran&;ccedil;ois Bouchot‚ 1837. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   In 1805‚ while Napoleon was marching through Germany‚ Mass&;eacute;na was given command of 50‚000 men in Italy‚ which held back Archduke Charles’s superior force at Caldiero. He joined Napoleon’s main army in March 1807 but saw little action and had to wait until 1809 for his moment of glory as a Napoleonic marshal.   In early July 1809‚ Napoleon made a second attempt to cross the Danube at the Battle of Wagram. During the most intense fighting on July 5‚ when a dangerous gap opened up in the French line‚ Mass&;eacute;na was ordered to close in from the left with his IV Corps. Though obliged to command from a carriage after falling from his horse‚ Mass&;eacute;na closed the gap while Napoleon moved his reserves forward. Once the line was steadied‚ Mass&;eacute;na led a wide outflanking maneuver to fend off Austrian general Klenau’s attack on the French left‚ leading to a close-fought victory the following day.   In 1810‚ Mass&;eacute;na went to Spain to take command of the Army of Portugal with orders to drive the Duke of Wellington’s redcoats out of Lisbon. After suffering heavy casualties at the Battle of Bussaco on September 27‚ Mass&;eacute;na followed Wellington into the mountains and was astonished to discover that Wellington had built an extensive network of fortifications known as the Lines of Torres Vedras. After languishing for three months‚ Mass&;eacute;na retreated into Spain in March 1811. A second invasion of Portugal in May was defeated at Fuentes de O&;ntilde;oro‚ prompting Mass&;eacute;na’s dismissal. He died in April 1817‚ just shy of his 59th birthday.   4. Louis-Alexandre Berthier: The Indispensable Marshal Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier‚ Prince of Neufch&;acirc;tel and of Wagram by Jacques-Augustin-Catherine Pajou the Younger‚ 1808. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   Unlike the other marshals on this list‚ Louis-Alexandre Berthier was not a supremely talented field commander. Nevertheless‚ he was Napoleon’s most important marshal‚ serving as his chief of staff for eighteen years between 1796 and 1814. When Napoleon promulgated his list of marshals in 1804‚ Berthier’s name was at the top of the list.   Louis-Alexandre Berthier was born in November 1753 at Versailles to a military family. After joining the French army‚ he served on General Rochambeau’s staff in the American Revolutionary War in the early 1780s and was present at the Siege of Yorktown. After the French Revolution‚ he served in senior staff positions and was appointed chief of staff of the Army of Italy in 1795. When Napoleon took command the following year‚ the two men began one of the most successful military partnerships in history.   During the Italian campaign‚ Berthier developed a keen understanding of Napoleon’s ambitious plans and was able to translate them into marching orders for the army. The two men spent so much time together during the Italian campaign that the men nicknamed Berthier “Napoleon’s wife.” After Bonaparte seized power as First Consul‚ Berthier was appointed Minister of War and began to reorganize the army.   Siege of Yorktown‚ 17 October 1781 by Auguste Couder‚ 1836. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   Berthier helped Napoleon develop a system of corps d’arm&;eacute;e in which each marshal led an independent force of around 20‚000–30‚000 men with its own infantry‚ cavalry‚ and artillery. With each corps taking separate roads but remaining within close contact‚ the army could move much faster. Each corps could be expected to stand their ground in a defensive battle‚ giving time for neighboring corps to come to their aid. Berthier was at the center of this system‚ coordinating movements on the operational chessboard during Napoleon’s greatest campaigns against Austria‚ Prussia‚ and Russia in 1805-07.   In late 1808‚ with rumors that Austria was preparing to resume hostilities‚ Napoleon sent Berthier to organize an army in Germany. When the Austrians unexpectedly invaded Bavaria in February 1809‚ Berthier was forced to take command. He suffered a series of reversals against Archduke Charles before Napoleon took personal command and turned the tide in April.   In 1812‚ Berthier helped to organize Napoleon’s invasion force for the Russian campaign‚ expressing justified concerns about whether the emperor could keep his army of half a million men adequately supplied. Berthier remained at Napoleon’s side in the 1813-14 campaigns‚ which ended in Napoleon’s defeat and abdication in April 1814.   Following Napoleon’s return from Elba‚ Berthier accompanied King Louis XVIII into exile in Ghent. He then returned to Paris to join Napoleon but was rejected for his questionable loyalties‚ prompting him to go to his in-laws at Bamberg Castle in Germany. On June 1‚ 1815‚ Berthier fell out of a window to his death in what was most likely an accident. A fortnight later‚ Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.   5. Louis-Gabriel Suchet: The Peninsular Marshal Marshal Louis-Gabriel Suchet‚ Duke of Albufera by Fr&;eacute;d&;eacute;ric Legrip‚ 1837-62. Source: Palace of Versailles‚ Paris   The Peninsular War (1807-14) was a bloody sideshow to the Napoleonic Wars that imposed a heavy cost on Napoleon in terms of men and resources. Although the emperor sent some of his finest veterans to pacify Spain and drive the British into the sea‚ his marshals were unable to completely restore order. The man who came closest was Louis-Gabriel Suchet.   Born in Lyons in 1770‚ Suchet joined the army following the French Revolution. He first came to General Bonaparte’s attention at the Siege of Toulon in 1793‚ where he led a valiant attack against an enemy battery. After being transferred to the Army of Italy in 1795‚ he served under General Mass&;eacute;na at Arcole and Rivoli. While Napoleon was in Egypt‚ Suchet served as chief-of-staff to General Barth&;eacute;lemy Joubert in Italy‚ where the latter was killed at the Battle of Novi in August. After Bonaparte took power as First Consul‚ Suchet returned to the Army of Italy. With fewer than 10‚000 men‚ he successfully defended southeastern France from an Austrian invasion while Mass&;eacute;na was besieged in Genoa.   Although Suchet was a young and ambitious officer‚ he was never close to Napoleon and did not climb the ranks as quickly as the likes of Davout and Lannes. In 1805‚ he was a divisional commander in Lannes’ V Corps and fought at Austerlitz. At the Battle of Jena in 1806‚ Suchet’s 1st Division led the attack against the Prussians‚ but he played no part in the major battles at Eylau and Friedland in 1807.   General Joaqu&;iacute;n Blake y Joyes by Manuel Ojeda‚ 1880. Source: Museo del Prado‚ Madrid   In 1808‚ Suchet was transferred to Spain and played a supporting role in the Siege of Zaragoza. When Napoleon recalled Lannes in early 1809‚ Suchet was named as his replacement. He reorganized his force into the Army of Aragon and began to pacify eastern Spain. He did so not only by inflicting several defeats upon General Joaqu&;iacute;n Blake’s regular Spanish army in battle but by understanding that he had to win the support of the local population. Suchet was alone among French marshals in having his conduct praised by the Spanish.   Although he only had some 20‚000 men under his command‚ Suchet was ordered by Napoleon to conquer Catalonia and Valencia. In June 1811‚ he captured the port city of Tarragona after a two-month siege and won his marshal’s baton. He followed up this success with the capture of Valencia in January 1812.   In 1813‚ Suchet managed to beat off a British invasion of eastern Spain in the spring‚ but Wellington’s decisive victory at the Battle of Vitoria in June left him isolated. In early 1814‚ he retreated across the Pyrenees into France and came to terms with the British on April 14 after Napoleon’s abdication. Suchet initially transferred his allegiance to King Louis XVIII but rallied to Napoleon during the Hundred Days. He was ordered to defend eastern France from Austrian invasion but did not see any action before Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo. His military career was over‚ and he died in January 1826 at the age of 55.

  In the early hours of December 25‚ 2016‚ a Russian Tu-154 military plane crashed in the Black Sea shortly after taking off from Sochi. Among the 92 killed were 64 members of the Red Army Choir on their way to perform for Russian service members in Syria. While the choir’s ranks have since been replenished‚ the tragedy devastated one of the world’s most famous military choirs and was lamented by its admirers all over the globe. Read on to discover the history of this famed choir and what makes it so significant.   The Red Army Choir’s Beginnings Photograph of A.V. Alexandrov‚ originally published in Alexandrov’s obituary in the Red Star newspaper on July 10‚ 1946. Unknown photographer. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The collective known internationally as the Red Army Choir was founded in 1928 on the initiative of the Red Army Central House as the Red Army Song Ensemble. Its founding director was Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov‚ a talented musician who had trained at the St Petersburg Conservatory under composers Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov.   While the troupe initially consisted of twelve members (eight singers‚ two dancers‚ and two musicians)‚ it grew significantly during its early years. With support from Soviet leader Joseph Stalin‚ there were already 135 members by the end of 1935.   The choir’s repertoire during the early years consisted of folk songs and Red Army songs from the Russian Civil War transcribed and arranged by Alexandrov. In 1929‚ when Soviet troops under General Vasily Blyukher were sent to Manchuria to fight the warlord Zhang Xueliang for control of the Chinese Eastern Railway‚ Alexandrov and his ensemble performed for troops at the front and were often under fire.   The Red Army Choir achieved international renown for the first time in 1937 when it traveled to France to perform at the Paris Exposition. At a time of ideological confrontation between Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia‚ Alexandrov’s men won a Gold Medal and gave 15 concerts instead of the originally scheduled six. The choir was on its way to the 1939 New York Exposition when it was forced to turn back by the outbreak of the Second World War.   The Sacred War Raising a flag over the Reichstag‚ photograph by Yevgeny Khaldei‚ 1945. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On June 22‚ 1941‚ Hitler invaded the Soviet Union‚ opening a phase of the Second World War known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. Two days later‚ on June 24‚ the poet Vasily Lebedev-Kumach wrote the text to a patriotic song with the following refrain:   Let noble wrath Boil over like a wave&;#33; This is the people’s war‚ The Sacred War&;#33;   After reading Lebedev-Kumach’s text at the choir’s rehearsal‚ Alexandrov immediately sat down at his piano to set The Sacred War to music. Two days later‚ the Red Army Choir premiered the song at the Belorussky Railway Station in Moscow before Soviet troops departed for the front. At a time when the Red Army’s forces were sent reeling by the Wehrmacht‚ Alexandrov’s stirring war cry gave hope to the Soviets in WWII. The Sacred War soon became one of Alexandrov’s most iconic compositions and continues to be regularly performed. During the war‚ the ensemble had over 300 performers and was divided into four independent groups‚ allowing the choir to entertain troops serving on different fronts‚ giving 1‚500 concerts in total.   In late 1943‚ the Soviet Union ran a competition for a new national anthem to replace The Internationale following the dissolution of the Comintern. Over 200 entries were received‚ including a joint submission by famous composers Dmitry Shostakovich and Aram Khachaturian. Alexandrov’s submission was based on his 1938 Anthem of the Bolshevik Party with new lyrics by Sergey Mikhalkov and Gabriel El-Registan. Alexandrov’s entry was duly adopted as the State Anthem of the Soviet Union in early 1944. Alexandrov’s tune continues to serve as the Anthem of the Russian Federation‚ sung to a new text written by the 87-year-old Mikhalkov in 2000.   International Fame Photograph of the Red Army Choir performing in Helsinki by Esko Manninen‚ c. 1950. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In July 1946‚ while the Red Army Choir was on tour in Berlin‚ Major General Alexander Alexandrov suddenly died of a heart attack at the age of 63. He was succeeded as leader of the ensemble by his son Boris.   With the end of the Second World War‚ the Red Army Choir now served to promote peace. The choir returned to Berlin in 1948 to sing at a peace concert‚ giving a performance featuring Russian folk songs‚ German operatic pieces‚ and the Ode to Joy chorus of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. Solo tenor Viktor Nikitin requested and was granted permission to perform a selection of German folk songs which had the audience singing along.   The Red Army Choir received numerous awards and titles from the Soviet state‚ and in 1949‚ it was renamed the A. V. Alexandrov Twice Red-bannered and Red-starred Song and Dance Ensemble of the Soviet Army‚ or Alexandrov Ensemble for short. The ensemble rose to new heights internationally‚ undertaking 70 tours during Boris Alexandrov’s 40-year leadership from 1946 to 1987.   During these international tours‚ the choir popularized a number of Russian songs. These included The Song of the Volga Boatmen‚ a traditional folk song sung by barge-haulers of the Volga River and performed by a bass-baritone soloist. Another song that became internationally famous is Katyusha‚ a wartime song about a young woman standing on a riverbank singing about her distant beloved at war.   Mr. Kalinka Photograph of Vadim Ananyev performing with the Red Army Choir on tour in China‚ 2019. Source: Alexandrov Ensemble‚ Russian Ministry of Defense   The most famous song in the Red Army Choir’s repertoire is Kalinka‚ written during the mid-19th century in the style of a folk song‚ in which the refrain is sung at a faster tempo every time it is repeated. In Boris Alexandrov’s arrangement of Kalinka‚ the tenor sings each verse while the choir sings the refrain‚ often with some members whistling to imitate birdsong.   The tenor begins each verse with a long descending “A-a-a-ah” phrase in a single breath‚ to the astonishment of audiences. Several tenors of the ensemble have been granted the unofficial nickname of Mr. Kalinka by journalists and critics for their virtuosity. Viktor Nikitin was the choir’s first Mr. Kalinka‚ a title conferred on him either at the Paris Exposition in 1937 or the Peace Concert in 1948. Nikitin ended his career as a soloist in 1952 and returned to the ranks of the choir.   During the 1960s‚ the title of Mr. Kalinka passed to Evgeny Belayev‚ who was also known as the “Russian Nightingale” for his performance of Solovii or Nightingales‚ in which the singer asks the eponymous birds not to disturb the soldiers sleeping (i.e.‚ fallen) on the field of battle. The Alexandrov Ensemble’s current Mr. Kalinka is Vadim Petrovich Ananyev‚ who has been a soloist since 1999.   Decline &; Revival Photograph of Alexandrov Ensemble performing in Warsaw‚ 2009. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Boris Alexandrov stepped down as the head of the ensemble in 1987‚ a few years before the fall of the Soviet Union. Funding began to dry up due to economic difficulties‚ and a 1988 tour to the UK featured a much smaller choir with the Ukrainian operatic tenor Anatoliy Solovianenko as guest soloist. When the Red Army Choir made its US debut in 1989‚ the New York Times critic remarked that the ensemble had been “toned down.”   In 1998‚ the Alexandrov Ensemble was officially renamed the A. V. Alexandrov Academic Song and Dance Ensemble of the Russian Army‚ though it continues to use the Red Army Choir brand internationally. Since 2006‚ the ensemble has been under the Russian Ministry of Defense.   The ensemble’s international fortunes revived in the early 2000s under the leadership of Leonid Malev‚ thanks to its international promoter‚ Thierry Wolf. Wolf organized a well-received concert in Paris in 2003 and a performance for an ailing Pope John Paul II at the Vatican the following year. At the interval for the first semi-final of the 2009 Eurovision Song Contest in Moscow‚ the Alexandrov Ensemble sang Kalinka and teamed up with girl duo t.a.T.u to perform their 2003 hit Not Gonna Get Us.     Thierry Wolf is also the promoter of the Russian National Guard (Rosgvardia) Choir led by Viktor Eliseev‚ formerly the Russian Interior Ministry (MVD) Choir‚ which performed a memorable cover of Daft Punk’s Get Lucky at the opening ceremony of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. In a confusing arrangement‚ Wolf’s production company also uses the Red Army Choir name to promote the MVD choir.   Tragedy &; Rebirth Photograph of Vadim Ananyev and Gennady Sachenyuk performing at a concert in St Petersburg‚ 2018. Source: Alexandrov Ensemble‚ Russian Ministry of Defense   Following the fall of communism‚ the Alexandrov Ensemble has performed for Russian troops in war zones in Chechnya‚ Yugoslavia‚ and Syria. This was the context behind the tragic plane crash in 2016‚ which killed most of the ensemble on their way to Latakia air base in Syria for a New Year concert.   The Alexandrov Ensemble’s leader and artistic director‚ Valery Khalilov‚ was among the victims. A well-respected military musician and composer‚ in 2006‚ Lieutenant-General Khalilov founded the Spasskaya Tower International Military Music Festival on Red Square‚ attracting military musicians from all over the world‚ including China‚ the United Kingdom‚ and the United States. He had been appointed to lead the Alexandrov Ensemble in May 2016‚ a mere seven months before he and his colleagues lost their lives.   The Ministry of Defense quickly began to rebuild the choir around surviving members who had not been on the plane. Star tenor Vadim Ananyev had been granted a leave of absence to take care of a newborn child‚ veteran bass Valery Gaava also stayed at home‚ while Roman Valutov’s expired passport denied him boarding at the airport.   On February 17‚ 2017‚ the reconstituted Red Army Choir performed for the first time after the tragedy under the baton of Gennady Sachenyuk‚ who had previously served as artistic director between 2012 and 2016. Alongside Ananyev‚ Gavva‚ and Valutov‚ the ensemble’s soloists include the baritone Maxim Maklakov‚ formerly of the Krasnodar Philharmonic‚ and the tenor Alexander Kruze‚ recruited from the Lipetsk Philharmonic.

  It is hard to imagine cuisine from the Mediterranean without tomatoes‚ but this is exactly how it was before the Spanish conquest of the New World and all the new and strange foodstuffs that the Spanish brought back with them to Europe.   Long before Europeans had any notion of such a thing as a tomato‚ however‚ the people of Central America were eating this fruit.   Today‚ the tomato is a culinary staple‚ used in food preparation around the entire world. It has become symbolic of national dishes and is an essential ingredient to so many dishes that a world without it is barely conceivable.   This is the history of the tomato.   Pre-Columbian History of the Tomato Wild Galapagos Tomatoes (Solanum cheesmaniae). Source: Terroir Seeds   The tomato is native to the western half of South and Central America‚ and it was likely consumed by the Indigenous people of the region for many centuries before the first hard evidence of its cultivation.   What is known is that by 500 BCE‚ it was being cultivated in what is now Mexico. It could have been cultivated in other parts of South America long before this‚ and it was most certainly known as an edible fruit long before cultivation. It would have been eaten by hunter-gatherer tribes. It is possible that cultivation began as far back as 7000 BCE.   These tomatoes‚ however‚ did not look like our modern conception of what a tomato should look like. For starters‚ they were the size of peas‚ and they were yellow. They also tasted very different and were far more acidic and sour than modern varieties. Nevertheless‚ they became part of the Native South and Central American diet‚ so much so that they were purposefully farmed.   Tomatillos. Source: Riverford Organic Farmers   By the time of the Aztecs‚ a vast variety of tomatoes were available in the markets. In 1529‚ the Aztec relationship with tomatoes was recorded by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahag&;uacute;n‚ who traveled with Hern&;aacute;n Cort&;eacute;s and the conquistadors to the New World. In Mexico City‚ he noted that there were many shapes and sizes of tomatoes. While some were small and cherry-like‚ others were large and round or elongated. He also noted that there were many colors‚ from the palest yellow to the deepest red.   Sahag&;uacute;n noted that in the markets‚ the Aztecs cooked and sold many different tomato sauces and juices mixed with other foods such as squash‚ chili‚ avocados‚ beans‚ and even “bird excrement.”   Additionally‚ the Aztecs grew tomatillos‚ also known as Mexican husk tomatoes‚ and are notable for the fact that the fruit is green and covered by a husk. The English name “tomato” is derived from the Aztec Nahuatl language. They called their red tomatoes xictomatl and their tomatillos tomatl.   The Great Columbian Exchange Hern&;aacute;n Cort&;eacute;s (1485–1547 CE) conquered the Aztecs and is said to have been responsible for bringing the tomato back to Europe. Source: Public Domain via World History Encyclopedia   The arrival of the Spanish in the New World brought many changes‚ not just to the New World‚ but to Europe‚ as both continents would be introduced to many things from the other.   Many fruits‚ vegetables‚ and grains crossed the Atlantic in Spanish galleons and found themselves being adopted or rejected by Europeans. This included potatoes‚ tomatoes‚ chilis‚ avocado‚ corn‚ beans‚ squash‚ chocolate‚ and vanilla.   A salad containing many foods from the New World: pineapple‚ corn‚ tomato‚ and avocado. Source: Pure Gold Pineapples   The tomato‚ like the potato‚ is part of the nightshade family of plants‚ which includes belladonna‚ and was thus viewed with great suspicion. In some folklore‚ it was believed that eating tomatoes would turn your blood to acid. The suspicions‚ however‚ were not completely unfounded. All parts of the tomato plant are toxic except for the fruit&;#33; And in some varieties‚ even the fruit contains toxins.   Within a few years‚ however‚ these suspicions were put to rest‚ and the tomato became an edible addition to many dishes. Only a few years after the appearance of the tomato in Spain‚ people were growing and eating them‚ as they grew very well in the Mediterranean climate. As early as 1544‚ the tomato made an appearance in a book by Pietro Andrea Mattioli‚ an Italian physician and botanist‚ who regarded the tomato as a type of eggplant that could be cooked and eaten in the same fashion.   As the Spanish Empire spread‚ so did the tomato. It was grown and eaten in all parts of the Spanish Empire‚ including the Philippines‚ which was acquired by Spain in 1565. From there‚ the tomato spread throughout Southeast Asia‚ where it was quickly adopted and adapted into the local cuisine. By the late 16th century‚ the tomato had found its way to China‚ where it was called 番茄 (fānqi&;eacute; – foreign eggplant).   By the beginning of the 17th century‚ tomatoes were commonplace in Spanish food.   A traditional Neapolitan pizza. Source: Vincenzo’s Plate   For a nation so closely associated with tomatoes‚ the story of how they found popularity in Italy is somewhat surprising. While the Spanish were consuming tomatoes in great quantities‚ the Italians‚ for many decades‚ saw tomatoes purely as decoration. It wasn’t until the late 17th to early 18th century that tomatoes started to be eaten. Even among the peasant class‚ tomatoes were not considered worth the time or effort because‚ as a fruit‚ they were not as tasty or as filling as the fruit that was already available.   This dynamic changed‚ and tomatoes went from being persona non grata to being the most loved addition to Italian food. Exactly how this happened is unknown‚ but it was likely a snowball effect of acceptance of the tomato as being tasty and edible when cooked. However it happened‚ it caused a tomato revolution in Italy. Over the next centuries‚ vast numbers of cultivars were created and served different purposes in Italian cuisine‚ from pizza and pasta toppings to sauces and salads.   Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale‚ 1800. Source: The White House Historical Association   It took a bit longer for the tomato to be accepted in Britain and its North American colonies. As on the continent‚ the suspicion regarding its supposed poisonous nature was present‚ but it seemed to have informed the attitude towards the tomato much more than in Spain. By the mid-18th century‚ the tomato had been accepted and was widespread but not consumed in great quantities‚ such as in the countries around the Mediterranean. Tomatoes were still regarded as something exotic.   The appearance of the first tomatoes being grown in British North America is dated to 1710‚ when a herbalist named William Salmon noticed them in South Carolina. It is suggested that they were brought over via the Caribbean and were originally transported there by colonists from Europe.   This dynamic mirrors the introduction of potatoes into North America. They were not brought into the British colonies via what would have been a short trip from Central and South America. Foods like these were regarded with suspicion when first introduced to Europe. Then‚ they underwent a change where they were subjected to selective cultivation. The superior plant was then transported back to North America to support the colonists.   It was not until several decades later that tomatoes actually became popular in the United States. According to legend‚ it was due to Thomas Jefferson‚ who is said to have grown them in his garden. The women in his family used them in various delicious dishes‚ wowing their guests with the culinary delight. This story‚ however‚ is anecdotal‚ and it is unlikely to have actually been how tomatoes spread across the United States.   Tomato soup. Source: Natasha’s Kitchen   Another American anecdote that attests to the suspicion surrounding tomatoes is one whereby a gentleman‚ Colonel Robert Gibbon Johnson‚ sat down on the steps of a courthouse and ate an entire basket of tomatoes. A crowd gathered‚ expecting him to die from poisoning‚ but he finished the tomatoes and walked away. Thus‚ tomatoes in the United States lost some of their bad reputation. There was still enough suspicion that tomatoes were not eaten fresh. It was only after being processed that they were generally consumed. During this time‚ ketchup was far more popular than the idea of a fresh tomato in a salad&;#33;   By the end of the 19th century‚ however‚ tomatoes began to grow in fields and in popularity‚ being eaten fresh or cooked and served for breakfast‚ lunch‚ and dinner. Today‚ tomatoes are grown in every state‚ with most of the tomato farms in the Sun Belt‚ especially in Florida and California.   Tomatoes were a late addition to the table in the Middle East and North Africa. It was only at the beginning of the 19th century when they were introduced to the region by the British consul to Aleppo‚ John Barker. In the middle of the 19th century‚ the popularity of the tomato increased significantly and became an integral part of many dishes across the region.   Tomato Declared a Vegetable&;#63; Tomatoes. Source: Pexels / Julia Nagy   There was no doubt among scientists that the tomato was a fruit and‚ more specifically‚ a berry. The United States Supreme Court‚ however‚ decided to classify tomatoes as vegetables in order to subject them to a 10% tariff on vegetables.   The ruling came in 1893‚ and it was argued that “in the common language of the people‚” the tomato was a vegetable because it was served as such. Fruit was served as dessert‚ and vegetables were cooked and served with savory flavors. Whether cooked or eaten raw‚ tomatoes were considered vegetables by legal decree. Thus began (or maybe ended) the long-standing argument over whether tomatoes constitute a fruit or a vegetable.   Tomatoes Today La Tomatina Festival in Spain. Source: Creative Commons / Flickr / Wikipedia   Tomatoes are found everywhere today and are grown in vast quantities. They are essential ingredients to many dishes found all over the world‚ from India to China‚ to Europe‚ the Americas‚ and Africa. There is no part of the world untouched by the flavor of the tomato.   And they’re not just for eating&;#33; Since 1945‚ La Tomatina Festival has been held in Spain every year‚ whereby people celebrate the existence of tomatoes by throwing them at each other&;#33;   From little berries growing in the wilds of South America to the plates of hundreds of millions of people across the entire world‚ the tomato is one of the most ubiquitous foods today‚ forming a vital part of the national culture and cuisine of many countries.   Today‚ tomatoes are readily available almost anywhere in the world and are so popular that it’s difficult to imagine a world without them.