Since this article was published, it has come to our attention that the person who created the patch used old resources and did not communicate with the original translator or hacker. Read the response from the original translator, who said he did not sign off on this release. This is the big one, the English fan […]

  The American Civil War ended in the late spring of 1865 with a decisive Union military victory. Despite being defeated militarily, the former Confederacy made no effort to change its treatment of Black people. Slavery was formally eliminated with the Thirteenth Amendment, which all former Confederate states were made to ratify, but Southern states quickly implemented “Black Codes” to try to subjugate formerly enslaved people.   Setting the Stage: Slavery in the South An 1867 wood engraving of slaves laboring in a cotton field in the American South before the Civil War. Source: National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH)   For the first eighty years of the American republic, slavery was a controversial institution. Primarily, slave states were in the South and provided agricultural labor. By the 1840s, the agrarian economy of the South relied heavily on slave labor. Tensions over slavery began to increase during this decade, influenced by the Second Great Awakening religious movement that opened many Americans’ eyes to the evils of forced bondage. This greatly expanded the abolition movement to ban slavery. When new territory was added to the United States after the Mexican-American War, abolitionists clashed fiercely with proponents of slavery.   To keep the peace, Congress and a series of one-term US presidents tried to balance the addition of slave states and free states. The Compromise of 1850 added California as a free state but let other new territories choose their slavery status and increased the powers of Southerners to recapture escaped enslaved people. In 1857, proponents of slavery seemed to win the upper hand when the US Supreme Court ruled that Black people were not citizens of the United States, tacitly approving slavery and preventing Black people from suing for their rights. The Dred Scott decision set the stage for a political reckoning since the courts would not end the institution of slavery.   Setting the Stage: The End of Slavery A copy of orders delivered in Galveston, Texas to formally abolish slavery at the end of the American Civil War in 1865. Source: Galveston Historical Society   The reckoning came less than four years later when anti-slavery Republican presidential nominee Abraham Lincoln won the White House in a four-candidate race. Outraged at Lincoln’s victory, which he achieved with no electoral votes from the South, several Southern states seceded from the union and created the Confederate States of America in early 1861. In April, Confederate forces attacked the United States military at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, beginning the long and bloody American Civil War. In September 1862, to punish the Confederacy for its continued rebellion, President Lincoln made the Emancipation Proclamation: all enslaved people in states still in rebellion against the United States as of January 1, 1863 would be legally considered free.   Unfortunately, no Southern states ended their secession peacefully. Slavery was ended by force as the Union slowly retook Confederate territory, with enslaved people often fleeing toward Union lines to win their freedom before they could be moved deeper into the South. Ultimately, slavery was finally ended in June 1865 when Union troops finally reached southern Texas. On June 19, 1865, a contingent of Union soldiers landed in Galveston, Texas and presented orders to free the enslaved people in the state. Juneteenth is considered the official end of slavery in the United States, and the date has since become a federal holiday.   The South After the Civil War: Black Codes Black men being forced to labor in the South under punitive Black Codes passed after the Civil War to return formerly enslaved people to bondage. Source: African American Intellectual History Society   Although militarily defeated, the South was not willing to voluntarily change its treatment of Black people. The states, although forced to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution to abolish slavery, quickly created laws and policies to keep former slaves in positions of forced labor. These Black Codes were laws to punish unemployment and vagrancy with forced labor…effectively re-enslaving Black people. Across Southern states, which were militarily occupied by the federal government, white voters swiftly voted ex-Confederates back into office.   A famous Harper’s Weekly cover from 1867 showing African American men voting, an occurrence that upset Southern states. Source: California African American Museum (CAAM)   In the most restrictive states, Black people were arrested and forced to do forced labor if they could not produce written contracts of employment on an annual basis. Employers could deny these documents, often to avoid having to pay for labor received. Republicans in Congress, angered by the Black Codes, began passing civil rights acts. When Southern Democratic US President Andrew Johnson vetoed these civil rights acts, a two-thirds majority of each chamber of Congress overrode the veto.   1868: Fourteenth Amendment Ratified An image of the Fourteenth Amendment of the US Constitution, which granted citizenship and “equal protection of the laws” to formerly enslaved people. Source: PBS   More help was needed to ensure the rights of Black people in the South, so Congress pushed on and passed the Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment granted citizenship to all formerly enslaved people (and everyone born in the United States) and famously stated that all citizens shall be treated equally under the law. Importantly, this amendment gave formerly enslaved people the same citizenship status as white people. Most Southern states refused to ratify this amendment, but the Reconstruction Act of 1867 made ratification a requirement for those states to be readmitted to the union.   There was strong resistance in the South to give equal rights to Black people, and many deemed the Fourteenth Amendment invalid because it was allegedly only ratified under coercion. Since the Fourteenth Amendment did not specifically mention voting rights, these rights were still denied. As a result, Congress still needed to act. Fortunately, thanks to the recent election of Republican presidential candidate Ulysses S. Grant, famous Union general during the Civil War, Republicans in Congress had enough political power to quickly push through another constitutional amendment in February 1869.   1870: Fifteenth Amendment Ratified An 1870 poster celebrating the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment, which said voting rights could not abridged on account of race. Source: Virginia Humanities   Again, Southern states did not wish to ratify this new amendment. However, Congress swiftly decreed that ratification was a requirement for readmission to the union. The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified on March 30, 1870, and explicitly stated that voting rights shall not be “denied or abridged” on the basis of race. Eagerly, many Black men began to vote for the first time, giving formerly enslaved men a degree of political power for the first time in American history.   Unfortunately, the amendment was broad and ambiguous, leaving a giant loophole for states to abuse. In the US Constitution, voter registration was left to the states, giving each individual state the ability to pass laws regarding when and how people could register to vote. For a brief period, Black men (women would not be granted voting rights in all states until the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920) were able to elect their own to political offices in the South. Between ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870 and the end of Reconstruction in January 1877, up to 2,000 Black men were elected to political office.   Early 1870s: Southern Resistance to Black Suffrage An image of members of the terrorist organization Ku Klux Klan burning a cross in the American South, typically with the goal of suppressing Black rights. Source: Equal Justice Initiative (EJI)   Southern states initially did not discover the legal loopholes they would later use to deny voter registration to many Black men. However, many former Confederates united to use violence and intimidation to limit the Black vote through radical groups like the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). “The Klan” conducted large rallies to intimidate Black people—and other minorities—away from the polls. They also engaged in attacks on Black people who voted to send signals to others who might support the pro-civil rights Republican Party. State governments took no action against these attacks.   After their intimidation helped the Democratic Party win elections in 1870, the Ku Klux Klan began to erode as the federal government intervened once again. The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 allowed US President Ulysses S. Grant, a proponent of civil rights for formerly enslaved people, to use the military to take control of civil affairs in states that were not doing enough to combat the KKK. After Grant utilized this power in South Carolina, other Southern states began prosecuting the Klan. Prominent members of the Klan, many of whom were considered respectable leaders in the community, ceased their activities to avoid consequences.   Literacy Tests Two political cartoons criticizing the use of literacy tests in the United States, which were often used to deny voting rights to African Americans. Source: Open Campus   In 1890, Southern states introduced a formal tool to prevent Black men from voting: literacy tests. Beginning with Mississippi, the South added literacy tests and poll taxes to its state constitutions to disenfranchise voters who might threaten the dominance of the Democratic Party. Because the literacy tests were “race-neutral” and theoretically applied to all voters, this allowed states to claim they were following the Fifteenth Amendment. In 1898, the US Supreme Court agreed, upholding literacy tests. To allow poor whites to vote, states could selectively use the grandfather clause to exempt them from literacy tests if their grandfathers had been registered to vote by a certain date.   Literacy tests were so effective at limiting the Black vote because they were created to be arbitrary (able to interpret any way) and controlled entirely by local authorities. Thus, in most places in the South, Black voters were deemed “illiterate” regardless of their actual intelligence or literacy skills. Although the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause as unconstitutional in 1915, the balance of power was permanently shifted against Black voters because many illiterate white voters had already registered. For decades, segregation in the South was unchallenged because Black citizens could not vote. Many Southerners argued that literacy tests were a valid tool to protect democracy, but critics saw that they were plainly racist in application.   Voting Rights Act of 1965 US President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the Voting Rights Act on August 6, 1965, barring states from using literacy tests for voter registration. Source: National Public Radio (NPR)   With many Black citizens disenfranchised from voting when the Civil Rights Movement began in the 1950s, progress was slow. Despite the Fifteenth Amendment asserting that the right to vote should not be limited on account of race, states had effectively used literacy tests to prevent most Black men and women from voting. As little as three percent of voting-age Black people were registered to vote in 1940. When the Civil Rights Movement began, a major component was voting rights. Organized drives were made throughout the South, often using volunteers from the North to register Black voters despite local opposition.   Violence was inflicted on many Black people who tried to register to vote or register others to vote in the early 1960s. However, voter registration drives were successful, and the rate of Black voter registration significantly increased by 1964. This boosted optimism to continue the drives and protests against voter suppression. When Alabama authorities attacked peaceful protesters in early 1965, television coverage rallied national support for protecting Black voting rights. US President Lyndon B. Johnson urged Congress to push through a Voting Rights Act, which he signed on August 6, to finally and fully enforce the Fifteenth Amendment. The Act banned the use of literacy tests and temporarily replaced local voter registration clerks with federal employees.   Race-Based Gerrymandering in the South An illustration of gerrymandering, the pejorative term for legislative redistricting. Source: University of Wisconsin-Madison   Another part of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 dealt with redistricting of legislative districts. Both US House of Representative districts and state legislative districts are redrawn periodically by state legislatures to provide for equal representation for voters. Prior to the mid-1960s, however, redistricting in many states was done blatantly to advantage the political party in power. In the South, this meant redistricting to limit the power of Black voters. This meant that, even as more Black citizens were able to vote, their votes had little power. Typically, predominantly white suburbs were made centers of districts so that predominantly Black urban areas were divided up, preventing any majority-Black districts.   Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 banned race-based redistricting and allowed the federal government and private citizens to sue states for alleged violations of this rule. Several lawsuits have since been filed against states for alleged race-based gerrymandering. Initially, many states and counties were subject to Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, which required them to get pre-clearance from the federal government for redistricting. Most Southern states were required to get federal approval for their redistricting due to a proven history of race-based gerrymandering (a pejorative term for redistricting). The formula used by the federal government to approve Section 5 redistricting was ruled unconstitutional in 2013, but Section 5 itself may still be legal.   Alleged Voter Suppression Today Protesters in the United States criticizing perceived voter suppression in the modern era. Source: National Education Association (NEA)   Many people allege that voter suppression, a potential violation of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, remains a significant issue in the United States. Redistricting is still frequently criticized in many Southern states for diluting the voting power of minorities. In recent years, however, the federal government has allowed these states to redistrict according to their original plans. In 2018, for example, the US Supreme Court ruled that Texas’ controversial redistricting was only partisan-motivated and not race-motivated, thus making it legal. Critics argue that the lack of racist motive does not mean minorities’ voting power is not being weakened by such partisan redistricting.   Claims of voter suppression now focus on voter roll purging and threats of prosecution for illegal voting. Conservative states have been accused of intentionally trying to disenfranchise lower-income and minority voters by aggressively purging voters who miss voting in recent elections, thus increasing the power of wealthier voters who can easily make it to the polls each time. Aggressively questioning voters about their voting status and threatening prosecution for illegal voting is sometimes considered voter intimidation, with critics claiming that conservative states are using such tactics to frighten low-income and minority voters away from the polls.

  Students are integral to their communities. They bring fresh ideas, drive cultural movements, and push boundaries in ways that shape society. But their surroundings, where they choose to study, play a big role in molding their experiences. America, known for its famous educational institutions, is home to thousands of historic campuses, each with its unique academic prestige and community charm. Some of these places are more than just about the campuses. They are deeply rooted in history, providing students with an environment where the past meets the future. It’s not just about student life, though. The ten historic college towns in America we’re featuring here make for great destinations for travelers and history buffs alike.   1. Cambridge, Massachusetts University Museum, Harvard Campus, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Cambridge is home to both the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as well as Harvard University. Founded in 1630 by Puritan settlers, it has long been a historic and intellectual center.   Harvard University was established in 1636, and since then, it has become the oldest institution of higher learning in the US. You can see plenty of architectural landmarks on campus, such as the Memorial Hall, Widener Library, and the iconic John Harvard statue.   Cambridge is also known for its Revolutionary War sites, such as Cambridge Common. This is where General George Washington took command of the Continental Army in 1775, setting up his headquarters at what is now the Longfellow House-Washington’s Headquarters. The historic home also became poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s residence. It remains a key landmark today.   Mount Auburn Cemetery, which was founded in 1831, is located near Cambridge. This is America’s first garden cemetery and a peaceful place where historical figures like writer Margaret Fuller rest.   2. Charlottesville, Virginia The Rotunda and Lawn, University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The heart of Charlottesville’s identity is formed by the University of Virginia, which was established in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson. An innovative “academical concept” is what Jefferson adopted to design the university’s campus. This concept was centered around the iconic Rotunda, modeled after the Roman Pantheon. Today, the Rotunda and surrounding Lawn remain architectural highlights and are part of a UNESCO World Heritage site along with Monticello, Jefferson’s nearby estate. When you’re here, make sure to marvel at the beautiful gardens and explore the historical exhibits.   If you’re interested in visiting historical sites around Charlottesville, then the Downtown Mall should be at the top of your list. This is a bustling pedestrian street filled with shops, historic architecture, and restaurants. Monticello and nearby presidential homes like James Monroe’s Highland also make for a good visit if you want to learn more about early American history.   3. Princeton, New Jersey The Princeton University Graduate College in Princeton, New Jersey. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This charming college town is primarily known for Princeton University. The latter was founded as the College of New Jersey in 1746. Located in the heart of town, it’s surrounded by significant historical sites and lush, carefully landscaped grounds that reflect centuries-old architectural styles, from Georgian to Collegiate Gothic.   Nassau Hall is one of the most notable landmarks as it’s the oldest building on Princeton University’s campus. This hall served as a meeting place for the Continental Congress in 1783. This allowed Princeton to become the nation’s capital for a brief period. Nearby, you can find the Morven Museum & Garden. This one was once the home of Declaration signer Richard Stockton. If you want to know more about colonial life and New Jersey’s historical heritage, then it’s a must to visit this museum.   Another popular spot is Palmer Square, which features a mix of eateries, shops, and historical architecture. History and architecture enthusiasts enjoy taking guided walking tours in Princeton. These are offered by the Historical Society of Princeton, and they take you to places such as Bainbridge House and the University Chapel, where you can learn about the area’s Revolutionary War history.   4. New Haven, Connecticut Yale University, Central Campus Architecture, New Haven, Connecticut. Source: Wikimedia Commons   New Haven makes it to the list of the top college towns in America thanks to Yale University and Southern Connecticut State University. These two respected institutions bring academic prestige and significantly contribute to the rich cultural scene in New Haven.   Yale, the Ivy League university, was founded in 1701 and deeply influenced the character of the town with its Collegiate Gothic and Georgian architecture. The university’s cultural offerings are diverse, from Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, which houses literary treasures, to the Yale University Art Gallery, famous for its impressive art collections.   The layout of New Haven, including the historic New Haven Green, dates back to 1638. This makes it one of America’s earliest planned cities. The Green is surrounded by historic sites and regularly hosts cultural events. Apart from the campus, you can also explore East Rock Park for panoramic views. Another thing to do is visit the Grove Street Cemetery, America’s first chartered burial ground.   5. Williamsburg, Virginia College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. Source: Flickr   This quintessential college town was founded in 1699 as the capital of Virginia. It’s known for its orderly streets and prominent public buildings, including the Capitol and Governor’s Palace. Governor Francis Nicholson intended Williamsburg to be a center for governance, education, and culture. The city remained Old Dominion’s political hub until the capital moved to Richmond in 1780.   Today, Williamsburg is home to the College of William & Mary. This is the second-oldest college in the US. It’s also where notable figures like Thomas Jefferson studied. The Colonial Williamsburg area in the city allows you to witness preserved and reconstructed 18th-century buildings. Some of these include Bruton Parish Church and the Raleigh Tavern, a significant meeting spot during revolutionary debates.   If you love the outdoors, the Colonial Parkway provides you with scenic routes to nearby Jamestown and Yorktown. What better could you wish for than connecting with even more historic sites after exploring Williamsburg?   6. Annapolis, Maryland McDowell Hall, St. John’s College, Annapolis, Maryland. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Annapolis has deep connections to both American history and naval tradition. It is known for the United States Naval Academy, which was founded in 1845, as well as St. John’s College, one of the oldest liberal arts colleges in the US (founded in 1696). These institutions hold events that contribute to Annapolis’ student life and culture. These include the annual croquet match between the Naval Academy and St. John’s, bringing students and locals together.   Annapolis is obviously rich with many historic sites, such as the Maryland State House, the oldest US capitol still in legislative use. This site is famous for its role in George Washington’s resignation as Commander-in-Chief and the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The William Paca House and Garden is located nearby. This is an 18th-century mansion that offers a glimpse into colonial life with its charming architecture and gardens.   7. Berkeley, California UC Berkeley campus, Berkeley, California. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Known for the 1868-established University of California, Berkeley is really a vibrant college town in America that you should visit sometime. As the flagship campus of the UC system, the university has become a hub for academic excellence. It also turned into a center of progressive movements, especially during the Free Speech Movement of the 1960s.   The UC Berkeley campus in itself is worth exploring only for its iconic spots, such as the Sather Tower, known as the Campanile. You won’t be able to resist the sweeping views of the Bay Area that this spot offers. Also, another important landmark on campus is the Sproul Plaza where many historic demonstrations took place.   You’ll also enjoy exploring Berkeley’s Telegraph Avenue, which is a lively street lined with unique shops, cafes, and historic sites that capture the college town’s eclectic, activist spirit.   Visit the Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (BAMPFA), where you can see an extensive art collection and film screenings.   8. Athens, Georgia University of Georgia North Campus, Brooks Hall, Athens, Georgia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Founded in 1785, the University of Georgia (UGA) has largely shaped the rich history and culture of the classic college town that is Athens. UGA’s historic North Campus is known as the birthplace of public higher education in the US, and without the slightest doubt, it’s a must to explore this spot, with its grand archway, historic buildings, and picturesque green spaces.   Athens itself was named after the Greek capital in tribute to its scholarly ambitions. Over the years, the town has grown into a lively cultural hub.   Aside from its college history, Athens is also famous for its music scene, which birthed bands like R.E.M. and the B-52s. You can explore this legacy on the Athens Music History Walking Tour or by visiting the iconic Georgia Theatre and 40 Watt Club for live performances.   If art is your thing, head to the Georgia Museum of Art and Lyndon House Arts Center. You can also stroll down historic streets in Athens and see the charming shops, Southern-style eateries, and local landmarks.   9. Oxford, Mississippi Facade of Lyceum Building, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This is not only a college town, but it also deserves the title of a literary haven. Established in 1837, Oxford was named after its British counterpart in hopes of becoming a center for higher education. Needless to say, this vision came true as soon as 1848 when the University of Mississippi, “Ole Miss,” was founded. The university remains a central part of the identity of Oxford today. The campus is historic in itself, as it houses landmarks like the Lyceum and areas that are significant to the Civil Rights Movement.   The historic town square is the heart of Oxford. It features the Lafayette County Courthouse, which dates back to 1873, surrounded by local shops, cafes, and the renowned Square Books bookstore. One place to explore is Rowan Oak. This is the home of Nobel Prize-winning author William Faulkner. It now serves as a museum where you can learn about his life and work.   10. Ithaca, New York Cornell University, an Ivy League university located on the top of the East Hill of Ithaca, NY. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled in the Finger Lakes region, Ithaca is home to Cornell University as well as Ithaca College. The town boasts a mix of historic sites, academic life, and scenic attractions. It was founded in the early 1800s and quickly became a bustling center rich with landmarks such as DeWitt Park, an area that dates back to the founding of the town. Another landmark that the New York college town is famous for is the Ithaca Commons, a pedestrian zone filled with historic buildings, restaurants, and shops.   Ithaca also has plenty of natural sites that it’s famous for, such as Taughannock Falls State Park. Here, you can view one of the highest waterfalls east of the Rockies. Stewart Park, at the southern tip of Cayuga Lake, has historic ties to the silent film industry and offers walking trails and a restored carousel. As a history lover, you can also visit the History Center in Tompkins County, which preserves local artifacts and offers self-guided tours of Ithaca’s historic districts.

  The Rhodesian Bush War, also known as the Zimbabwean War of Liberation, raged for fifteen years in the wild and inhospitable heat of the African bush. Three factions vied for dominance in this cruel and unforgiving environment.   Like many wars in Africa in the 20th century, it was brought about by efforts to throw off the colonial yoke and assert the right to self-rule and sovereignty.   Britain had relinquished control over what had been the colony of Southern Rhodesia, but instead of allowing Black people to form a majority government, the white government in the capital of Salisbury declared full independence and refused to allow democracy to take its course.   The result was a long and bloody war.   The Factions Prime Ministers Hendrik Verwoerd of South Africa (left) and Ian Smith of Rhodesia (right). Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Rhodesian government, led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, sought to preserve minority white rule in the country, while the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and its militant wing, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), took up the gauntlet and maneuvered to take control. Facing them both was the Marxist-Leninist Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and its militant wing, Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA).   Despite having the common goal of achieving majority rule, ZANU and ZAPU differed in their ideology. ZANU, emphasizing guerilla tactics, was Maoist and was supplied by China, while ZAPU emphasized more conventional forms of warfare and was provided by the Soviet Union.   A commander, Rex Nhongo, who trained under both the Soviets and the Chinese, spoke of the difference in ideologies:   “In the Soviet Union they had told us that the decisive factor of the war is weapons.  When I got to Itumbi, where there were Chinese instructors, I was told that the decisive factor was the people.”   Nevertheless, these independence movements would ostensibly be allied in their quest to remove the minority white government from power. In their quest, they received support from militant groups in surrounding countries, such as Frelimo in Mozambique and the African National Congress (Nelson Mandela’s party) and its armed wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe, which was fighting against the apartheid government in South Africa.   The flag of ZAPU. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite the fact that Southern Rhodesia had a population that was 96 percent Black and the fact that independence movements had already shown their intent to take up arms and fight, in November 1965, Ian Smith and the Rhodesian government signed the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). At the time, the white population was just 230,000 out of a total population of approximately 4.2 million.   This declaration was a direct affront to Britain’s attempt at decolonization, which had declared “no independence before majority rule.” As a result, Rhodesia went internationally unrecognized as a legitimate state. Sanctions were imposed on Rhodesia by much of the international community.   Nevertheless, it would receive significant support from South Africa and Portugal, which still owned the territories of Angola and Mozambique and was mired in a conflict against liberation forces.   Because of their small numbers, the Rhodesian Security Forces had to be well-trained, and they came to be seen as one of the world’s most effective fighting forces.   The First Phase of the War Rhodesian soldiers during the early years of the war. Source: Rhodesian War Games   The Rhodesian Bush War is considered to have begun on July 4, 1964, when ZANU forces raided a white farm and killed a farmer, Pieter Oberholzer. The killing resulted in the government arresting and detaining several key leaders of ZANU and ZAPU. This, in turn, generated a military response. ZANLA forces, based in neighboring Mozambique and Zambia, began a campaign of sporadic guerilla actions against Rhodesian assets.   This situation continued until the UDI, when this action prompted ZANLA forces to intensify their attacks. The first major engagement in the war happened in a town called Sinoia in north-central Rhodesia. A team of seven ZANLA guerillas were engaged by 40 members of the Rhodesian British South African Police Forces, supported by four helicopters. All seven guerillas were killed in the action.   The emblem of the Selous Scouts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   At this point in the conflict, the fighting was low-intensity and mostly confined to the northern areas of Rhodesia. Portugal’s control of Mozambique secured the entire eastern border.   Nevertheless, it became clear that the conflict would last many years, and the Rhodesian government escalated its efforts by expanding control of the situation to the army and air force. Generally operating in small counter-insurgency groups, the army’s soldiers were extremely well-trained.   With skirmishes across the northern border, the Rhodesian forces sought out and engaged small guerilla forces, while the Rhodesian Special Air Service and the famed Selous Scouts conducted cross-border raids into neighboring territories in order to seek out and destroy guerilla camps and bases of operation.   Rhodesian soldiers debussing from an Alouette helicopter. Source: rhodesians.co   These actions were effective, and the Rhodesian government and its forces found themselves in a favorable position. Nationalist forces failed to make any progress within Rhodesia and were subject to their own internal divisions, which greatly affected their ability to mount any serious offensive operations.   In addition, the Rhodesian government had not suffered any disastrous effects from sanctions. Cooperation with Portugal and South Africa was strengthened, and the armed forces of each country helped each other suppress insurgent forces across their respective territories and well into the territories of neighboring countries in which nationalist insurgents took refuge.   Rhodesia was also able to procure modern arms and armor from effective smuggling operations.   The Second Phase of the War A ZANLA poster from 1976, The Poster Collective/Grunwick Strike Committee. Source: Victoria & Albert Museum, London   In the early 1970s, fortunes began to shift massively. Guerilla attacks increased in intensity, and conscription was extended to one year for white males. The conscription age was also increased to 50, and no 17-year-olds were allowed to leave the country. Such was the dire need for manpower that began to plague the Rhodesian armed forces.   By 1974, it became clear that Portugal would grant independence to its colonial possessions in Africa. This was an extremely alarming development for Rhodesia, as it meant not just a probable end to Portuguese support for the minority government in Rhodesia but the fact that the Portuguese territory of Mozambique accounted for a huge section of the Rhodesian border, and without the Portuguese to secure it, the Mozambican territory would become a major staging ground for nationalist attacks. It also meant that Mozambique and Angola would help the nationalist groups in their quest to end white minority rule, not just politically but militarily.   On June 25, 1975, the socialist independence movement, Frelimo, took power in Mozambique. The Rhodesians could do nothing to stop their entire border, with Mozambique becoming a battleground. For many people, the writing was clearly already on the wall. White minority rule could not last forever.   The border situation before and after the Portuguese left Africa, paving the way for Angolan and Mozambican independence. Source: Maps created by Greg Beyer   Meanwhile, an increasing number of left-wing countries around the world were offering training to ZANLA and ZIPRA forces. These countries included Ethiopia, Yugoslavia, Romania, Cuba, the Soviet Union, and China.   Amid South Africa’s own increasingly difficult problems in conducting the Border War, supplying Rhodesia became a priority very low down on the list, and military support was slowly pulled. This included military personnel who had been supporting the Rhodesians in securing their border. The South Africans also disagreed with the Rhodesian handling of the conflict. They feared that the ZANLA body count would attract more attention from Cuba and the Soviet Union, who would deploy their militaries as a response.   Despite the dire outlook, the Smith government tried to entrench itself further and took more desperate measures to ensure its survival. The length of military service was increased from 12 to 18 months, and the Rhodesian government tried to offset its lack in numbers by hiring Black soldiers and recruiting volunteers from abroad.   A Turning Tide Eland-90 armored cars of the Rhodesian Armoured Corps. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As the months passed, these measures proved not to be enough. The Rhodesian government tried to satisfy itself by measuring success in terms of body count, but this was no more than a fantasy in terms of what it meant for final victory.   ZANLA forces were operating throughout the east, while ZIPRA forces pressed in from the west. Rhodesian security forces were unable to contain the numbers of militants, and insurgent strikes began happening on a more frequent basis.   Cross-border raids yielded results but were not enough to stem the tide. Further international pressure increased as the Rhodesians resorted to more brutal tactics, such as the raid on Nyadzonya in Mozambique, where Rhodesian forces dressed as FRELIMO (itself a war crime) entered a village where ZANLA operated and began killing indiscriminately. “Operation Eland” resulted in the death of 1,028 ZANLA guerillas with no Rhodesian losses.   Another incident in 1977, Operation Dingo, saw Rhodesian forces attacking the ZANLA bases at Chimoio and Tembue in Mozambique. The operation, which lasted for four days, is believed to have resulted in the deaths of 1,200 ZANLA soldiers as well as many civilians, further attracting unwanted international attention. Only two Rhodesian soldiers were killed and eight wounded in the operation. It skewed perceptions of who was winning the war and ultimately led to a more concerted African Nationalist effort to depose the government of Ian Smith.   A Way Out ZANU flag. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Slowly, the Rhodesian government tried to find a way out and compromise with the less militant parts of the resistance. The opportunity presented itself in the form of the less militant faction of ZANU and the motions put forward by The United African National Council, a smaller independent faction led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa.   In 1976, a split had happened in ZANU. After the assassination of ZANU’s leader, Herbert Chitepo, there was a bid for power, which was won by Ndabaningi Sithole, who took over the reins of the party. His pacifist attitude and willingness to détente with Smith’s government caused many in the party to reject his leadership. With the widespread support of ZANLA, Robert Mugabe and Simon Muzenda formed the Patriotic Front, known as ZANU-PF, to carry on the military struggle against their oppressors. Prime Minister Robert Mugabe. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Negotiations began, and in March 1978, an accord was reached in which Ian Smith agreed to majority rule but with substantial white representation. The new state would be called Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.   This accord, however, was roundly rejected by guerilla forces who wanted nothing but complete victory and complete majority rule. The guerilla forces of ZANLA and ZIPRA continued to fight, increasing the brutality as victory became a reality. Killing became indiscriminate, and civilians were targets of terrorist attacks in a war that saw the Rhodesian forces now become caught in the middle. ZANLA and ZIPRA forces began targeting each other as each faction wanted as much control as possible when the Smith government finally surrendered.   Recruitment poster for the Rhodesian Army. Source: Rhodesian Study Circle   With a civil war between ZIPRA and ZANLA threatening to engulf the country, Rhodesian security forces attempted to draft Black Rhodesians into the armed forces, but the call-ups were roundly ignored.   A new government was formed with Abel Muzorewa at its head, but the accord that had brought about this transition did not include ZANU or ZAPU elements and was thus unrecognized by the international community.   Majority Rule Artwork from Zimbabwe’s Heroes Acre. Source: Good Governance Africa   With the state of Rhodesia-Zimbabwe collapsing, a new agreement was sought. This came in the form of the Lancaster House Agreement, in which the country was temporarily returned to British rule with the intention of holding democratic elections. These elections took place from February 14 to March 4, 1980, and resulted in a resounding victory for ZANU under the leadership of Robert Mugabe.   Mugabe became Prime Minister with Canaan Banana serving as president, the latter being a largely ceremonial position as the Prime Minister held much more power.   Flag of Rhodesia from 1968 to 1979. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Rhodesian Bush War, like so many wars in Africa, was the result of colonial enterprise. Over the course of 15 years, it escalated to the point where insurgent forces could no longer be contained.   And like all colonial conflicts in Africa, it proved that minority rule could not be sustained forever. A decade later, the white minority in South Africa would have to make similar compromises.

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October 28, 2024

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