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  Tunisia is in the Maghreb region along the coast of North Africa between Libya and Algeria. Tunis, the capital, has long been a prosperous port city along Mediterranean trade routes. Historian Jamil Abun-Nasr explains that the first recorded settlers were called “Libyans” though better classified as Berbers in the tenth century BCE. The country has experienced centuries of imperial conquests from the Romans to the French in the nineteenth century. Nationalists led by Habib Bourguiba secured Tunisian independence in 1956.   Revolving Door of Dynasties  Panoramic View of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Tunisia is perhaps best known as the heartland of the ancient Mediterranean power, Carthage. Founded as a colonial outpost by Phoenicians from the port city of Tyre, Carthage later emerged as a Mediterranean imperial power. Carthage’s growing power led to conflict with the Roman Republic. Rome ultimately defeated Carthage in the three Punic Wars.   The Romans called the conquered province Africa, which would later give its name to the continent. Moreover, the Romans also revived the city of Carthage, which had been destroyed. Indeed, Carthage emerged as a dynamic center of Christianity in Roman North Africa.   Roman rule was followed by a succession of invaders. In 670 CE, Tunisia fell to Arab conquerors, an event that introduced Islam to the country. By the ninth century, Kairouan emerged as a major Islamic learning and commercial center.   Ottoman Rule? Portrait of Hayreddin Barbarossa, by M. Kacim, undated. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ottoman forces gained a foothold in the Maghreb region through the 1516 conquest of Algiers. The Ottomans, though, essentially ruled much of North Africa indirectly. For example, Tunisia essentially remained under the control of the Hafsid dynasty between 1229 and 1574.   The Hafsids presided over a flourishing commercial empire centered on Tunis. As historian Jamil Abun-Nasr points out, Muslim and Christian merchants across the Mediterranean engaged in trade with Hafsid Tunis. However, by the 16th century, the Hafsids were locked in a conflict with the Spanish and Ottoman-backed pirates.   For instance, the famous naval commander and privateer Hayreddin Barbarossa led the first Ottoman conquest of Tunis in 1534. A second Ottoman conquest of Tunis in 1574 established the Regency of Tunis.   But as before, Ottoman rule was distant, with power exercised by local officials on behalf of the sultan. In the sixteenth century, appointed Ottoman officials, known as pashas, saw their influence reduced in favor of two other administrators. The first of these was the military commander, known as the Dey. The other official, the Bey, was responsible for various administrative tasks, including collecting taxes.   By the early seventeenth century, the Bey had become a more powerful official. As a result, Tunisia’s rulers assumed the title of Bey or Lord. In 1613, a janissary of Corsican origin named Murad Bey established the Muradid dynasty in Tunisia. The death of the last Muradid ruler, Muradid II Bey, in 1675 plunged Tunisia into a civil war known as the Revolutions of Tunis. Moreover, once again, Spanish forces tried to seize Tunisia.   The Husaynid Dynasty Portrait of Ahmad I Bey by Charles-Philippe Larivière, 1846. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Amid Spanish attacks and civil war, Tunisia’s next ruling dynasty, the Husaynids or Husianids, took control of the Regency of Tunis in 1705. The dynasty’s founder, Al-Husayn I ibn Ali at-Turki, assumed power and ended the years of political turmoil and civil war resulting from the end of Muradid rule.   Piracy flourished across North Africa over certain periods since the Ottoman conquest in the sixteenth century. Successive Tunisian rulers, including the Husaynids, provided a haven and benefited from the raids of the Barbary Pirates.   Operating from bases in Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, the Barbary Pirates menaced European and later American shipping in the Mediterranean. Despite a surge in profits during the Napoleonic Wars, acts of piracy waned in the early nineteenth century. Historian Frank Lambert notes that American military intervention during the First and Second Barbary Wars was one reason for this decline.   In the nineteenth century, Husaynid Beys presided over a series of significant reforms. For example, inspired by Ottoman administrative reforms, Tunisia’s rulers issued the first constitution in the Arab World. However, Tunisian rulers also placed increasing strain on the country’s finances.   Public debt did not exist in the Regency of Tunis until the late 1830s. However, successive Husaynid Beys accumulated staggering debts to foreign creditors over the next five decades, especially the French, British, and later Italians. For instance, Ahmad I Bey spent lavishly on creating a professional military. He oversaw the establishment of a military academy at Le Bardo. He sent thousands of Tunisians to fight alongside Ottoman forces in the Crimean War.   Crisis Sadok Bey on Horseback during the 1864 Revolt by Auguste Moynier, c. 1865. Source: Wikimedia Commons   A combination of challenges rocked the Regency of Tunis in the late nineteenth century. This crisis led to the establishment of a French protectorate in Tunisia in 1881.   Even an attempt to alleviate economic problems only deepened Tunisia’s crisis. For instance, the implementation of a poll tax (the mejba) by Husaynid ruler Sadok Bey prompted a massive rebellion in 1864. Rural populations offered stiff resistance to tax collectors. In response, an army under General Ahmed Zarrouk terrorized rural communities.   Historian Derek Hopwood says Zarrouk’s brutal suppression of the so-called Mejba Revolt in 1864-1865 inflicted deep wounds in Tunisian society. Moreover, putting down the rebellion forced the Tunisian government to become even more indebted to foreign creditors.   At the same time, immigration from Europe contributed to a growing rivalry between European imperial powers for influence in the cash-strapped Regency of Tunis. Italian communities continued to grow in late nineteenth-century Tunisia. In fact, a group of Italian Jewish merchants from Livorno had been the first foreigners to permanently settle in Tunisia during the sixteenth century.   By the nineteenth century, historian Julia Clancy-Smith points out that Tunis became a hotbed of migration for southern Italians and Maltese. In fact, some community members rose to prominence in the Tunisian government as ministers and advisors to the Bey.   However, in the aftermath of Italian unification or the Risorgimento, Italian nationalists eyed Tunisia as a potential colonial possession. This brought Italy into conflict with France, who had long seen the Maghreb as a French sphere of influence.   Tunisia Under French Rule Photograph of Avenue de la Marine, Tunis, 1885, by Bernard Bouret. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Financial challenges and the mounting Franco-Italian rivalry in North Africa jeopardized the Bey’s autonomy in Tunisia. Indeed, as Kenneth Perkins explains, the final blow to Tunisian autonomy came from the Congress of Berlin in 1878. As part of the negotiations, the French received British assurances that there would be no opposition to future French control of Tunisia.   The French acted on their ambitions for Tunisia in 1881. Under the pretext that Tunisian troops illegally crossed into French Algeria, French troops invaded Tunisia. Shortly after, the French forced the Bey to sign the Bardo Treaty, recognizing Tunisia as a French Protectorate.   Husaynid Beys officially remained as absolute monarchs in Tunisia. However, power resided in the position of the French Resident-General, who had the right to legislate with the Bey’s signature. French soon became the privileged language of government, education, and culture.   French officials oversaw extensive urban development projects in several areas of the country. Moreover, they expanded the country’s railway system. Although there was little resistance to French rule early on, Tunisians began to organize opposition in the wake of the First World War.   Indeed, the First World War mobilized the populations of France’s colonial possessions. For instance, 80,000 Tunisians served in WWI, and roughly 10,000 were killed. The war and its immediate aftermath brought a wave of anti-colonial nationalism in the French Empire. However, WWI did not produce much anti-colonial agitation in Tunisia.   Despite the lack of open resistance to French rule, Tunisian nationalism did grow in this period. For example, various groups of intellectuals and activists debated Tunisia’s future through multiple publications. These debates also created political action in the form of the Destour (Constitution) Party.   Habib Bourguiba & Tunisian Independence Habib Bourguiba (left) and Muhammad VIII al-Amin Bey, c. 1956. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The most significant Tunisian nationalist was Habib Bourguiba. Historians know little concrete information about Bourguiba’s youth. For instance, his birthdate remains widely disputed, though his biographer believes it to be 1903. We do know that Bourguiba left Tunisia to study in France as a young man.   Upon his return to Tunisia, Bourguiba emerged as a prominent activist for Tunisian independence. He endured several spells in prison for his anti-colonial activities. In 1934, Bourguiba broke from the Destour Party and helped organize the Neo-Destour Party.   The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 radically changed the situation in Tunisia. For starters, Tunisian nationalists were faced with a choice. They could help the French and participate in resistance against German and Italian invaders. Alternatively, they could collaborate with the Axis Powers against the French.   Despite French imprisonment and overtures from the Germans and Italians, Bourguiba called on Tunisians to back the French and their allies against the Axis Powers. Derek Hopwood says that despite this, it took pressure from American officials to keep Bourguiba out of French custody.   Prominent nationalists like Bourguiba and Salah Ben Youssef played a vital role in Tunisia’s independence from France. Moreover, there was armed resistance to French rule in Tunisia in the early 1950s. However, independence largely came about because of external factors within France and the French Empire.   For example, the premiership of Pierre Mendès in 1954 signaled a significant shift in French policy regarding the empire. Moreover, military reversals in French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) and Algeria left little enthusiasm among French officials to resist Tunisian demands for independence.   As a result, France recognized the independent Kingdom of Tunisia on March 20, 1956. The last French troops evacuated Tunisia in October 1963 following a violent incident stemming from the conflict in Algeria.   Bourguiba to Ben Ali Official Portrait of President Habib Bourguiba, 1960. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Habib Bourguiba became the prime minister, leading the government of King Muhammad VIII al-Amin. However, Bourguiba soon turned on the monarchy and organized the king’s removal. Thus, the monarchy dominated by Husaynid Beys since 1705 was abolished in July 1957.   Soon, constitutional reforms led to Bourguiba being entrenched in power as the new Republic of Tunisia’s president. By 1974, Tunisia’s weak legislature proclaimed Bourguiba president for life. According to his biographer Derek Hopwood, Bourguiba devoted most of his energy to promoting his legacy.   Bourguiba, for instance, had dozens of statues of himself placed in central squares across Tunisia. He also made sure to widely publicize the visits of high-profile foreign visitors to the presidential palace. However, his most significant pet project involved the construction of an impressive mausoleum. At first, Bourguiba had plans to build this in Tunis but eventually decided it should be in his hometown of Monastir.   Eventually, health problems, scandals, and a volatile economy caused Bourguiba to lose his grip on power. One of his ministers, Zine El Abdine Ben Ali, seized control of the government in 1987. As Derek Hopwood points out, Bourguiba was removed from the presidential palace but not taken to his grand mausoleum. Instead, he was placed under house arrest. Despite this and failing health, Bourguiba occasionally spoke with Ben Ali. He died in 2000 and was buried in the mausoleum.   Ben Ali soon established a similar grip on power in Tunisia until 2011.   Revolution  Photograph of a Tunisian Army Tank in front of the Cathedral of Tunis during the Jasmine Revolution, January 2011, by M. Reis. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ben Ali’s fall from power in early 2011 came about because of an anti-government movement known as the Jasmine or Dignity Revolution. Malath Al-Agha notes seven other countries from across the Middle East and North Africa joined Tunisia in pro-democracy reform movements known as the Arab Spring between January 2011 and 2013.   The Arab Spring’s spark, as Eugene Rogan explains, emerged in Tunisia in late 2010. In December 2010, Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire to protest the actions of local authorities. Demonstrations against Ben Ali’s government rapidly spread across the country. Ben Ali fled into exile in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, where he died in 2019.   Tunisia’s revolutionary events of 2011 opened a chapter in the country’s history filled with tumult and optimism.

  Education in America has always been central to its identity. It actually shaped the nation’s social and cultural fabric. From the earliest colonial days, when education was a privilege for the elite, to the public school systems that now serve millions, the country’s approach to learning has evolved alongside its values. Schools have become mirrors of social change, and they’re adapting to meet the needs of the whole population. Today, the nation is home to more than 25,000 high schools and around 6,000 colleges and universities, many of which are located in so-called college towns steeped in rich history.   While many might think of universities like Harvard and Yale as the oldest pillars of American education, the origins of academic tradition lie elsewhere. Here’s a closer look at the oldest high school in the United States, an institution that laid the foundation for modern education.   What Is the Oldest High School in America? Boston Latin School, Boston, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The title of the oldest high school in America belongs to Boston Latin School, founded in 1635 in Boston, Massachusetts. This prestigious school predates the establishment of Harvard College by a year and was modeled after the grammar schools of England. Its original purpose was to provide a classical education to young boys and prepare them for higher education, particularly at Harvard.   Boston Latin School has maintained its reputation as a pioneer in American education, paving the way for public schooling systems and shaping the academic trajectories of countless students. Its longevity and continued prominence make it a remarkable institution worth exploring in depth.   The History of Boston Latin School Boston Latin School Interior View, Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Boston Latin School was founded during a time when education was reserved for the elite. The school’s curriculum focused on classical studies, with a heavy emphasis on Latin and Greek, and it sought to prepare young men for leadership roles in religion, law, and government. Its establishment reflected the early Puritan settlers’ belief in the value of education and their desire to create a literate, morally upright society.   The first classes were held in the home of the schoolmaster, Philemon Pormort, and consisted of a handful of boys from prominent families. Over time, the school moved to various locations in Boston, known as Beantown, before finding its current home on Avenue Louis Pasteur in 1922.   Boston Latin School boasts an impressive list of alumni who have significantly contributed to various fields:   • Benjamin Franklin: Founding Father and polymath. • John Hancock: President of the Second Continental Congress and the first signer of the Declaration of Independence. • Samuel Adams: Founding Father and political philosopher. • Charles William Eliot: President of Harvard University (1869–1909). • Joseph P. Kennedy: Businessman and father of President John F. Kennedy. • Leonard Bernstein: Renowned composer and conductor.   Can You Visit Boston Latin School? Sign showing the Site of the First Public School on Freedom Trail in Boston. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Boston Latin School is accessible to visitors, though it is an active educational institution and not a traditional museum. Visitors are encouraged to check ahead for specific visiting hours or opportunities to tour the facilities. The school sometimes hosts events, exhibitions, or lectures that are open to the public, providing a chance to engage with its history and current mission.   For history enthusiasts, the school offers a fascinating glimpse into America’s educational past. While much of the school’s current structure reflects modern design, historical elements, and artifacts have been preserved to honor its legacy.   What to See at Boston Latin School Boston Latin School plaque on School Street in Boston, Massachusetts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Boston Latin School houses an extraordinary collection of historical artifacts that reflect its rich legacy, including approximately 5,000 items preserved in the Boston Latin School Archives. These items include publications, photographs, memorabilia, and textiles that document the school’s history during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Memorial Hall, a dedicated space within the school, honors its distinguished alumni and their significant contributions to American society.   Scattered throughout the campus are commemorative plaques that highlight the school’s many achievements and milestones, paying tribute to notable figures and events in its storied past. Visitors can also admire the Benjamin Franklin statue, which stands near the original school site on School Street. This statue celebrates one of the school’s most famous alumni and serves as a testament to the institution’s profound impact on American history. Conveniently situated in Boston, the school is also close to iconic landmarks such as the Freedom Trail and the Massachusetts State House, making it a must-visit destination for those interested in educational and historical tours of the city.   Can You Enroll in Boston Latin School? Boston Latin School – physics classroom, Boston, Massachusetts. Source: TimelessMoon, Boston Public Library   As a public exam school in Boston, Boston Latin School accepts students based on academic merit. Admission is competitive and determined through a combination of grades and standardized test scores. While it originally served only male students, Boston Latin School has been coeducational since 1972, further broadening access to its prestigious programs.   Enrollment is limited to students who live in Boston, and the application process requires a strong academic record and exceptional test performance. For those lucky enough to gain entry, the school offers a challenging and rewarding educational experience that has been honed over centuries.   Community Engagement and Lasting Legacy Boston Latin School Exterior View, Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts. Source: Flickr   Boston Latin School’s sustainability programs emphasize education for sustainability, systems thinking, youth leadership, service learning, and collaboration. These efforts involve partnerships with city officials, government agencies, local businesses, schools, and non-profit organizations, establishing Boston Latin as a model for green school practices.   A notable example is the Boston Latin School Youth Climate Action Network, which played a significant role in developing Boston’s Climate Action Plan. This student-led group organized community engagement sessions to involve young people in climate action, demonstrating the school’s dedication to empowering students as active community participants.   The Boston Latin School Association (BLSA) further strengthens community ties by connecting alumni, parents, and students. The BLSA Family Committee, led by parent volunteers, focuses on building a supportive parent community and enhancing parent engagement through fundraising and outreach efforts.   Other Notable Public High Schools in America Boy’s Central High School Broad and Green Streets, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Source: Picryl   While Boston Latin School holds the distinction of being the oldest high school in America, several other institutions also have remarkable histories and significant contributions to education. Central High School in Philadelphia, established in 1836, stands out as one of the oldest public high schools still in continuous operation. Similarly, Hartford Public High School in Connecticut, founded in 1638, shares a long-standing legacy and has adapted over the years to meet the demands of modern education. Stuyvesant High School in New York City, though not as old, is celebrated for its rigorous academic programs and exceptional achievements in STEM fields. Together, these schools reflect the diversity and depth of America’s educational heritage.

  The glass delusion was a psychiatric disorder found in written records in both the Middle Ages and Early Modern Ages, in which people believed that they were made of glass. The disorder caused sufferers great distress and the impending fear that they could shatter like real glass, meaning they would not want to be touched or hugged by anyone. In the fictional story The Glass Graduate, (1613), by Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes, he describes the maladies of a sufferer: “they would break him, that he really and truly was not like other men, that he was all glass from head to toe.”   The curious glass delusion started popping up when clear glass became more regularly used throughout normal people’s lives. As a novelty, it fascinated people, which might explain the rise in the strange condition. It is also worth noting that before glass was invented, other human delusions linked with material substances had manifested, for example, some people had once believed they were made of earthenware.   Which European Royals Suffered from the Glass Delusion? Charles VI, King of France, wrapped himself in blankets. Source: Getty Images   Two famous royals were known to suffer from the glass delusion; King Charles VI of France and Princess Alexandra of Bavaria. Charles VI was crowned the King of France at only 12 years old in 1380, and ruled until 1422 when he died. He now has the nickname ‘Charles the Mad’ because of his mental illness and episodes of psychosis. His episodes varied and started out small, with the king behaving as if he were feverish, and escalated to forgetting who he was or members of his own family.    Pope Pius II recorded Charles VI’s belief that he was made of glass. Like many with the delusion,  Charles thought he could be shattered; it is stated he had a suit with iron ribs to help protect him, and used soft objects like blankets to protect his body where the iron would be difficult to utilize. In his case it is possible his condition was hereditary, as his mom was thought to have mental health issues.   Wine bottle made of glass, probably British, ca. 1760. Source: The Met.   In contrast, Princess Alexandra of Bavaria had a different set of psychologic episodes, including her version of the glass delusion. Besides being a royal, she was also a writer, and she was the fifth daughter of Ludwig I of Bavaria. Besides her obsession with wearing white clothes and cleanliness, in her twenties she also believed that she had swallowed a glass piano as a child that could possibly shatter inside of her.    How Were Psychiatric Disorders Treated in the Middle Ages? Charles VI, ca. 1411-13. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mental illnesses like the glass delusion were seen in a different light during the Middle Ages. While some people believed that these episodes were the result of sin, a study published by Cambridge University Press found it was often thought to be brought on by an imbalance of the four humors (phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile), an improper diet, alcohol, or outside forces.   The first hospital to treat mental illness in Europe (treat in the loosest of terms), was Bethlem Royal Hospital (also notoriously known as “Bedlam”) in 1247. The first United States hospital was opened in 1753 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At the time they opened, and for many years after, these places were not designed to help people in the correct way, and they were rife with horrible conditions and treatment by the staff. They were considered as ‘less’ than so-called ‘normal’ people, and often treated like animals.   Before hospitals were created, ordinary people with illnesses like the glass delusion had very few options. Families could opt to take care of them, or they could end up homeless, requiring them to beg for basic needs like food. They could be seen as a menace or burden to society. They were also some of the individuals who were caught up in witch trials. It wasn’t until the 1900s that people who had mental disorders were seen less as “inmates” and more as patients. It would be longer still for better healthcare and understanding to emerge.   Are There Any Cases of the Glass Delusion Today? The four qualities, elements, humors, and temperaments, unknown artist, c. 19th century. Source: The Wellcome Collection   According to the BBC, by the 1830s, there were very few cases the glass delusion recorded. This could have been for a variety of reasons, including the advance in medicine and an increased understanding of mental illnesses, even if the treatment of those who suffered them was often poor. However, isolated cases of the disorder have very occasionally appeared in modern and contemporary times. Similar kinds of delusions have changed following technological advancements, with concrete and microchip implantation becoming more prevalent.

  In the years following World War II, the United States became the world leader in industry and a global power. Culture in the 1950s is often seen as one of conformity, but several contradictions existed during the decade that gave way to several microcosms of culture, some more visible than others. In this article, we will examine how politics, race, gender, and economic status influenced the culture of the 1950s and how it led to the United States of today.   Cold War & Red Scares   One defining element of 1950s culture was the ever-increasing tension between the Soviet Union and the United States. This tension grew out of fear in the US political sphere of communism. Euphemistically, leaders in the West, particularly in large capitalist countries like the United States, claimed that the USSR had “expansive tendencies.”   Statue depicting United Nations soldiers fending off a North Korean attack during the Korean War in Seoul, South Korea. Source: Department of Defense   The spread of communism was a threat to the global power that the United States had fairly recently established on the backs of democracy and capitalism. Thus began the process of containment by the US and its allies, an effort through diplomacy, veiled threats of nuclear action, and several proxy wars to keep communist countries from the ability to colonize and expand.   Containment took the form of war at the beginning of the decade when, in July 1950, American troops were called to Korea. The Korean War began in June 1950, when about 75,000 troops from the North Korean People’s Army invaded the land past the 38th parallel, thus encroaching on the pro-West Republic of Korea. The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (better known simply as North Korea) was backed by the USSR, and the push into Western-backed territory was seen as a push for communism and, thereby, a threat to the United States.   The Korean War was the first in a string of proxy wars that the United States and other Western powers saw as a fight against the scourge of communism. Though the war was never formally declared, President Truman justified the American troops in Korea as a matter of “police action.” This would become a trend throughout the following decades of the Cold War.   However, the fight between capitalism and communism ended in Korea in a stalemate. Almost exactly three years after the conflict began, the Korean War Armistice was signed, which created a tenuous peace between the newly formed North and South Korea, drawing a new border and giving additional territory to South Korea. The 38th parallel is still the site of the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which marks the border between the communist dictatorship to the North and the democratic government to the South.   Actor Gary Cooper testifying before HUAC. Source: ThoughtCo   This culture of containing communism at all costs also applied to the homefront. Paranoia was at an all-time high during the Cold War Era, as many politicians believed that communists were hiding in plain sight among the American public. This paranoia took the form of 84 hearings in Congress between 1945 and 1952, a push by the House un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) to uncover communist threats in American political and entertainment figures.   The HUAC uncovered little to nothing during these hearings but served to alienate and ostracize normal Americans in universities, public schools, the federal government, and even in Hollywood. The most intense form of this “Red Scare” came in the form of McCarthyism, wherein Senator Joseph McCarthy espoused supposed proof that “subversives” lurked in the upper echelons of government and were influencing the American public through entertainment.   The public tolerated the witch hunt for communist sympathizers until McCarthy turned on the armed forces, claiming once again that subversives were widespread in the military. This, of course, was baseless, and by 1954, McCarthy had been censured by his colleagues in the Senate, and the HUAC held no more hearings. The Red Scare of the 1950s had been for naught except to cause many Americans hardship and create panic in the nation’s collective psyche.   The Cold War and the fight against communism would continue, albeit on a less publicly accusatory level.   Pop Culture of the 1950s Television in the 1950s as the new hearth of home. Source: HuffPost   The generation of children born in the postwar boom was shaping into a cohesive and defined group. One of the theories for this clear divide between baby boomers and the generations before them is the influence of pop culture.   Advertisers of the day also saw these young people as an opportunity to market entertainment to their specific demographic. This took the form of art, television, and music. However, entertainment diverged on two lines—one that marketed morality and tradition to the younger generation and one that encouraged baby boomers’ desires to rebel against adult authority.   Music of the 1950s Elvis Presley performing his song “Jailhouse Rock.” Source: Fifties Web   A new form of music began to emerge in the 1950s that encouraged rebellion among American teens. Borrowing from the decades-old rhythms found in traditionally Black blues music, white country singers developed the rockabilly style, which then developed into rock and roll.   This new genre encouraged freedom for young people of the middle class, and it grew in popularity thanks, in large part, to American disk jockey Alan Freed. Freed not only named the genre of music, but also played it on the radio and organized the first two rock and roll concerts- one in Cleveland, Ohio, and the next in New York.   Groups like Bill Haley and His Comets and singers like Elvis Presley took themes and musical riffs from Black music and made them mainstream. The popularity of white rock and roll artists inevitably led to the popularity of Black artists who were making the same kind of music; stars like Chuck Berry and Little Richard made the color barrier in the music industry a bit more blurry.   Though young people went crazy for suggestive performers like Elvis, adults were, predictably, more scandalized and conservative when it came to liberation. For this reason, television performances were kept family-friendly, such as when Elvis performed on The Ed Sullivan Show, and the camera stayed glued to the singer’s torso, purposely not showing his gyrating hips and shimmying legs.   Television of the 1950s A still from a popular situational comedy, I Love Lucy. Source: TV Insider   Television was also a draw to all sorts of crowds in the 1950s, as the postwar boom allowed for more affordable TV sets in American households. By 1955, half of all American homes had a TV, and television shows became a dominant form of entertainment.   Television was a family-friendly activity, and several programs encouraged traditional ideologies, including religious faith, patriotism, and the importance of the nuclear family. Shows such as I Love Lucy, Leave It to Beaver, and Father Knows Best reinforced this.   These programs, called situational comedies (now known by the shorthand of sitcom), usually portrayed some variation of the same thing: a wise breadwinning father, a stay-at-home mother, and mischievous but well-intentioned and moral children. It was the idealized white suburban family, and it not only spoke to its audience but influenced them to believe that this was American culture and morality at its best.   The entertainment industry sought to subvert ideas of rebellion through television, while popular artists of the day encouraged freedom. While contradictory, the pop culture of the 1950s set the stage for several later stars and the development of American domination in the sphere of entertainment.   Growing Affluence & White Flight A typical suburban street, in this case, Levittown in New York. Source: US History Scene   The pop culture of the 1950s was made possible through another cultural phenomenon: that of the suburbs. After the end of World War II, couples began having more babies than ever before, largely due to the security and relative peace they felt after four years of war. Nearly 4 million babies per year were born in the 1950s, meaning the population of the United States was growing, as was the economy.   The economic uptick of the 1950s is often known as the “Golden Age of American Capitalism,” as government spending led to citizen spending in turn. Infrastructure, veteran benefits, and new technology led to a growing middle class, one that was low in unemployment and high in wages.   Middle-class Americans had more means and opportunities to spend than ever before, which included where they chose to live. Cities were growing crowded as the population boomed, and almost directly after the end of World War II, a solution began cropping up. Developers like William Levitt built sprawling, self-sufficient neighborhoods on the outskirts of cities, easily reachable with the growing network of highways in the country.   Levittown being built in New York. Source: US History Scene   The houses were inexpensive to build thanks to mass production developments, and the G.I. Bill, which allowed for several government benefits for veterans, also allowed returning soldiers and their families to obtain subsidized mortgages. These houses encouraged the baby boom by being perfectly spacious for young families and allowed for cheaper living than cramped city apartments.   However, wealth and opportunities only applied if the returning G.I. was white. Systemic racism and segregation led to a phenomenon called “white flight,” which referred to the ability of white families to pick up and move to the newly minted suburbs, both through their skin color directly, as developers often wouldn’t sell to Black families, and through systemic benefits, as Black soldiers did not receive fair treatment concerning the G.I. Bill.   The white flight also coincided with the Second Great Migration, which saw the mass movement of southern Blacks to northern cities to escape persecution. In escaping persecution, Black city dwellers found themselves forcibly segregated into cities, both by illegal redlining in neighborhood development as well as by outright and systemic racism.   Women of the 1950s Two stereotypical American women walking in the suburbs in the 1950s. Source: The Classroom   In stark contrast to the WWII era, which saw hundreds of thousands of women taking up roles in traditionally male-dominated fields, the 1950s were a cultural shift to the domesticity of women in America. Suddenly, men were returning home, and women no longer needed to help keep the homefront running smoothly.   This mass exodus of men back to the US was followed by a shift in thinking about women. As the fight between communism and capitalism ramped up, so too did the idealization of the nuclear family: a happy home of two married parents and at least two children. These traditional gender and family roles were seen as an advantage of Americans over the Soviets and an advantage of capitalism over communism.   The idea behind the propaganda was that women in America could stay home and become homemakers and mothers; they were made complete by their traditional femininity and their ability to take advantage of capitalism. Their husbands went to work and earned money so that the “modern housewife” could prepare food, keep the house clean, and raise the children. On the other hand, women in the Soviet Union were portrayed as poor and dirty, miserably suffering through days in factories and fields to further the goals of communism.   This cultural shift was accompanied by the rising rate of marriages, with many couples getting married younger and younger as the decade went on. Another common trope that cropped up during this time was women turning to higher education to earn an “M.R.S.” degree, wherein women went to university solely to meet a husband.   The first oral contraceptive pill, called Enovid. Source: Johnson & Johnson   In addition to a young marriage, women were expected to begin having children as soon as they married. The view of sex was shifting, and for the first time, it was seen as a sign of a healthy marriage to never shut one’s husband out of the bedroom. This led to decades of childbirth, as many brides became pregnant about seven months after their weddings. Additionally, the number of families with three children doubled, while those with four children quadrupled in just 20 years.   The media pushed the traditional agenda in almost every way possible, and society began to see independent women as “old maids” or “selfish” if they dared stay single past 25 or get a job when they did not need to. This idealization of a housewife still echoes in American society today, where, on average, women marry much younger than their counterparts in Europe.   A conflicting view of sex also appeared in the 1950s, which had a lasting effect on American culture. As mentioned previously, married women were encouraged to have sex for the first time in American history, while at the same time, avoiding premarital sex was reinforced. Women who became pregnant out of wedlock were shunned, sent away, and disgraced. Despite the idealization of virginity, women both in and out of wedlock were having sex, which spawned the appearance of female-controlled contraceptives.   The birth control pill was introduced in the late 1950s and was warmly accepted by women throughout the country, who could begin taking their sex lives into their own hands by having contraceptives they could control. It wasn’t a perfect solution, but it allowed women to start practicing autonomy, which would only develop throughout the decades into the second-wave feminist movement.   Desegregation & Rumblings of the Civil Rights Movement Paratroopers escort African American students into Little Rock Central High School, 1957, photo by Burt Glinn. Source: Magnum Photos   Racial inequality was reaching a fever pitch in the 1950s, as even outside of the South, Black Americans were still being treated as lesser. This manifested in many ways, namely the exclusion of Black soldiers and their families from the Levittown phenomenon, as well as being segregated from white Americans in nearly all aspects of public life, from restaurants to buses to bathrooms.   This frustration with inequality was the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement, which would begin to affect change in earnest in the 1960s and inspire groups like the Black Panthers and the Nation of Islam.   Several outward displays of racism also occurred in the 1950s that sparked an outcry. The Jim Crow South was in full swing and escalated violence against Black Americans, often without repercussions. This is evident from the murder of Emmett Till, a Chicago teenager who was lynched for “offending” a white girl while visiting family in Mississippi. Till’s body was then dumped in a nearby river, and his killers, while identified, were acquitted of the crime. Mamie Till, Emmett’s mother, was well-known for insisting on an open casket funeral when the remains of her 14-year-old son were finally returned, saying, “I just wanted the world to see.”   Mamie Till-Mobley and other mourners at Emmett Till’s funeral, 6 September 1955. Source: The Art Newspaper   While the case of Emmett Till is well-known, another lesser-known case set the stage for one of the first protests of the Civil Rights Movement. Hilliard Brooks Jr. was riding a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was shot twice and killed by a police officer for “causing a disturbance.” The officer faced no charges, even though Brooks was unarmed. He was 22 years old and left behind a pregnant wife and several children. This act of violence, perpetrated in August of 1950, set the stage for the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott.   However horrible the decade of the 1950s was for Black Americans, some victories were had that would set the stage for the Civil Rights Movement to make actual change in the United States. The Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 declared separate public school systems for white and Black children unconstitutional and began the process of desegregation throughout the United States.   While desegregation was heavily resisted in the South, the case of the Little Rock Nine was an instance in which the federal ruling helped to push the Civil Rights Movement forward. Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas attempted to block the nine students from attending school in 1957 by calling out the state National Guard. President Eisenhower responded in kind, deploying federal troops and allowing the Little Rock Nine to attend school at Central High.   While the Civil Rights Movement did not fully kick off and cause legislative change until the 1960s, the injustices and experiences of Black Americans in the 1950s certainly set the stage for change.   Counterculture & Looking to the ‘60s  Jackson Pollock working in his studio in the 1950s. Source: Sotheby’s   However conservative the culture of the 1950s looked from the outside, the undercurrent of rebellion flowed steadily, especially through the arts. The prevalence of rock and roll and its popularization of Black rhythm and blues sounds was just one example of the brewing cultural revolution. Literary works such as Jack Kerouac’s On the Road, which was typed on a 75-meter roll of paper, works of fine art like Jackson Pollock’s massive canvases with modern lines and bright swatches of color, and poetry like Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” were all pointing to a different way of life.   These works of art were small stepping stones into the major cultural upheaval of the 1960s and showed in small ways that convention and normality were not necessary for the modern person to live a happy life. Mainstream media and advertising agencies sought to keep America within neat, traditional, conservative boxes, physically manifested in cookie-cutter homes like those of Levittowns. But these artists, authors, poets, and musicians were looking forward to a future of rebellion and unconventional thinking.   A poster warning of a nuclear attack in suburbia alongside an idealized family poster. Source: makinghistoryatmacquarie   The culture of the 1950s was a unique one in the scope of American history. It provided the bones for modern American society, both in beneficial and detrimental ways. America is still suffering the effects of societal pressure on women, systemic racism, and conservative capitalistic rigidity, but the 1950s also ushered in the generation of free thinkers, powerful activists, and those who simply rebelled against the norm. The culture of the 1950s framed freedom with a specific set of requirements but allowed those who wanted to experience true freedom to break that framework in the following decades.

  Rebel. Celebrity. Hero. Traitor. Corsican revolutionary leader Pasquale Paoli was one of Europe’s most famous and divisive personalities of the late eighteenth century. His admirers included the likes of Enlightenment philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau and a young fellow Corsican named Napoleon Bonaparte.   But undoubtedly, Paoli’s fame was eclipsed by Napoleon’s. Nevertheless, Paoli’s story is fascinating. However, before we get into the details of Paoli’s life, it is important to learn about the Mediterranean island that both Paoli and Napoleon called home: Corsica.   Corsica Decorative Map of the French Department of Corsica featuring Napoleon, his mother Letizia, and Pasquale Paoli by Victor Levasseur, 1852. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Today, the Mediterranean island of Corsica is a Department of France. However, historically, culturally, and linguistically, the island has long been connected to Italy. Indeed, as Patrice Gueniffey explains, Pasquale Paoli and Napoleon Bonaparte came from Corsican and Italian origins.   At the time of Pasquale Paoli’s birth in April 1725, Corsica belonged to the Republic of Genoa. In earlier times, Genoa was second only to its rival, the Republic of Venice, in terms of Italian commercial and maritime supremacy.   But by the eighteenth century, Genoa had fallen into decline. Genoese rule in Corsica could not extend beyond the island’s coastal towns.   Thus, the island’s forbidding mountainous interior became a bastion of resistance to Genoese and later French rule. Pasquale’s father, Giacinto Paoli, led the Corsicans in revolt against the Genoese in 1735. However, the rebellion was suppressed by 1739.   Paoli the Rebel Pasquale Paoli by E. Thomas, 1889. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Given his father’s background, one could say becoming a rebel meant joining the family business for young Pasquale. Indeed, Pasquale got his first taste of exile by joining his father in Naples in 1739. Patrice Gueniffey says that the period of Neapolitan exile first exposed Paoli to Enlightenment ideas.   While in Naples, Paoli attended the military academy and plotted his return to fulfill his father’s goal of Corsican independence from Genoa. His military career began under his father’s command in 1741 in the Royal Neapolitan Army’s Corsican regiment.   In 1755, Paoli returned to Corsica and led a rebellion against the Genoese. By that summer, he had driven the Genoese out of the island except for a few fortified garrisons in coastal towns. The stage was set for Paoli to declare Corsica an independent republic.   An International Celebrity James Boswell by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1785. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Paoli’s rebellion and victory over the Genoese became an international sensation. Indeed, by this time, Paoli was considered a hero of the Enlightenment. As Cedric Oliva notes, Paoli’s introduction of a Corsican Constitution in 1755 had made him the darling of Enlightenment intellectuals. Oliva points out that this was one of the world’s first written constitutions to grant substantial rights to its citizens.   However, as Patrice Gueniffey pointed out, these constitutional rights mainly existed on paper. Instead, actual power was increasingly concentrated in Paoli’s hands. And this is precisely what many Corsicans desired. For instance, a young Napoleon Bonaparte numbered among Paoli’s many admirers. Indeed, for many Corsicans, Paoli was more than a celebrity. He was U Babbu di a Patria (the Father of the Country).   Paoli’s fame spread far beyond Corsica’s shores. He was even honored as far away as British North America with the founding of Paoli, Pennsylvania. Indeed, Paoli later became a source of inspiration for American patriots during the American Revolution.   Paoli largely had Scottish writer and grand tourist James Boswell to thank for his celebrity status. Gueniffey says that Boswell had been persuaded to visit Corsica and meet Paoli by none other than Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.   Boswell’s trip to Corsica in 1765 resulted in a close friendship with Paoli and a popular book about the island and its revolutionary hero. Indeed, Boswell became such a proponent of Corsican independence that he became known as “Corsica Boswell.”   But Corsica’s days under Paoli’s control were numbered. By 1764, Genoa had an ally in its war to retake Corsica: the French. In 1768, cash-strapped Genoa sold Corsica to Continental Europe’s great military power, the Kingdom of France.   Defeat, Exile, and Revolution Four images of Napoleon. 1. Napoleon as a Brigadier General by G. Fiesinger (top left). 2. Bonaparte at Arcole, 1796 by Antoine Jean Gros (top right). 3. Napoleon as First Consul at Malmaison by Jean Baptiste Isabey, 1802 (bottom left). 4. Napoleon as Emperor by Raffaello Morghen, 1810. Source: Wikimedia Commons   France’s purchase of Corsica from the Republic of Genoa in 1768 dramatically changed the situation for Paoli and his supporters. While Paoli’s Corsican rebels could hold off Genoese attacks, the Genoese were not the French in terms of military capability.   At first, Paoli’s Corsican rebels appeared capable of resisting the French. For example, in 1768, the Corsicans won an unexpected victory over French troops at the Battle of Borgo.   However, by early 1769, the French were in a position to overwhelm Paoli and his rebels. In early May 1769, French forces under the Comte de Vaux defeated Corsican rebels at the Battle of Ponte Novu. At this point, Paoli and many of his closest supporters chose exile rather than submit to French rule. Paoli went to London and received a pension from King George III.   Perhaps Paoli’s most famous supporters who did not follow him into exile were Napoleon’s parents, Carlo and Letizia. When faced with the decision to remain loyal to Paoli or swear allegiance to France, Carlo placed his faith in France’s King Louis XVI. As David Bell points out, Letizia formed close ties with Corsica’s French governor, the Comte de Marbeuf, which also improved the family’s position.   The Bonaparte family’s fateful decision to swear loyalty to France helped pave the way for Napoleon’s French education and future rise to power, thanks to the French Revolution.   However, just as the French Revolution created opportunities for Napoleon, it also changed Paoli’s fortunes.   A French Hero? Etching of the Storming of the Bastille, 1789, Artist Unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Paoli’s relationship with the French revolutionaries got off to a rocky start. For example, Napoleon’s benefactor and fellow Corsican, Antoine-Christophe Saliceti, got the French National Assembly to recognize Corsica as a French department in January 1790.   Paoli condemned this decision while still in exile as a sign of Paris attempting to centralize its power and influence on the island. On the other hand, Napoleon backed Saliceti’s proposal and approved the National Assembly’s decision.   Nevertheless, the sixty-five-year-old Paoli returned triumphantly to Corsica in July 1790. Napoleon and his older brother Joseph were on Ajaccio’s reception committee. After more than two decades in exile, Paoli returned with great fanfare and new titles.   For example, Paoli became a Lieutenant of Corsica and was elected to the presidencies of the island’s assembly and National Guard.   According to Andrew Roberts, Paoli saw the Bonaparte brothers as children of the collaborators who had turned on him and supported France in the 1760s. He also never fully trusted Napoleon because of his French officer’s commission.   These factors, coupled with the fact that Paoli worked closely with other leading families from the island, meant that Napoleon and his family would be frozen out of Corsica’s social and political leadership.   Enter the British  King George III by Sir William Beechey, c. 1810. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By early 1793, Paoli and his supporters (Paolists) had turned on the French Revolutionary cause. For his part, Paoli detested the more radical elements of the French Revolution, including King Louis XVI’s execution and the power of the Jacobin faction, to which Napoleon was now an enthusiastic supporter.   A botched campaign against France’s enemies in Sardinia in February 1793 marked the turning point in Paoli’s relationship with France. This campaign is also significant as it marks Napoleon’s first taste of battle. Andrew Roberts says that Paoli had promised to raise 10,000 troops for the campaign that his nephew commanded. However, less than 2,000 took part in the disastrous campaign.   Indeed, by this point, Paoli had opened negotiations with the British. He commanded fortified positions across Corsica and refused to let French forces gain access. In May 1793, Napoleon and Saliceti took part in a failed attack on Ajaccio’s citadel, which remained under Paolist control.   That same month, a frustrated Napoleon wrote a paper condemning Paoli. In early June 1793, the Bonaparte family fled Corsica for France. Paolist mobs ransacked Bonaparte family property. Although he had been critical in 1793, Andrew Roberts notes that in later life, Napoleon spoke “with the greatest respect for Paoli.”   But that time would be much later. At that moment, Paoli invited the British to seize Corsica. By the end of June 1793, Paoli proclaimed King George III of Britain as Corsica’s monarch. In July 1793, British forces arrived to take control of Corsica.   Final Exile Photograph of Paoli’s Tomb, Morosaglia, Corsica by Pietro Montesacro. Source: Wikimedia Commons   French forces seized Corsica from the British in 1796. Paoli fled Corsica for exile once again in Britain for what would be the last time. He died in London in February 1807.   Napoleon returned to Corsica for just one brief visit on his return from the Egyptian campaign in 1799.   The French honored Paoli, though, in the late nineteenth century. For example, during the centennial celebrations of the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1889, Paoli’s remains were repatriated to his birthplace of Morosaglia in Corsica.

Senator Tom Cotton has threatened to invade a US ally on behalf of Israel. Cotton, a staunch ally of Israel, invoked the ‘Hague Invasion Act’ in an effort to intimidate the International Criminal Court (ICC) [...] The post US Senator Tom Cotton Threatens To Invade The Netherlands appeared first on The People's Voice.

American guitarist knew his recordings would never appear on the record, but knows his contribution made a difference to the 1979 song