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The day when human beings finally set foot on Mars is rapidly approaching. Right now‚ NASA‚ the China National Space Agency (CNSA)‚ and SpaceX have all announced plans to send astronauts to the Red Planet “by 2040”‚ “in 2033”‚ and “before 2030”‚ respectively. These missions will lead to the creation of long-term habitats that will enable return missions and scientific research that will investigate everything from the geological evolution of Mars to the possible existence of past (or even present) life. The opportunities this will create are mirrored only by the challenges they will entail. One of the greatest challenges is ensuring that crews have access to water‚ which means that any habitats must be established near an underground source. Similarly‚ scientists anticipate that if there is still life on Mars today‚ it will likely exist in “briny patches” beneath the surface. A possible solution is to incorporate a system for large-scale water mining operations on Mars that could screen for lifeforms. The proposal‚ known as an Agnostic Life Finding (ALF) system‚ was one of thirteen concepts selected by NASA’s Innovative Advanced Concept (NIAC) program this year for Phase I development. The concept was proposed by Steven Benner and a team from the Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution (FfAME) in Alachua‚ Florida. Benner is a former professor of chemistry at Harvard University‚ ETH Zurich‚ and the University of Florida‚ where he was the V.T. &; Louise Jackson Distinguished Professor of Chemistry. In 2005‚ he founded the Foundation For Applied Molecular Evolution‚ where he and his colleagues became the first scientists to synthesize a gene‚ thus giving birth to the field of synthetic biology. As Benner and his team explained in their proposal‚ the ALF system is designed to simplify astrobiological studies on Mars before any crewed missions arrive. Its purpose is also to address several foregone conclusions raised at NASA’s 2019 Conference (Extant Life on Mars: What’s Next?) held in Carlsbad‚ New Mexico. During this conference‚ it was generally agreed that scientists have good reason to suspect the following about life on Mars: Life started on Mars using the same geo-organic chemistry that started life on Earth. Martian life persists today on Mars‚ in near-surface ice‚ low elevations‚ and caves‚ all with transient liquid brines‚ environments that today on Earth host microbial life. Martian life must use informational polymers (like DNA); Darwinian evolution requires these‚ and Darwinian evolution is the only way matter can organize to give life. While Martian “DNA” may differ (possibly radically) in its chemistry from Terran DNA‚ the “Polyelectrolyte Theory of the Gene” limits the universe of possible alien DNA structures. Those structures ensure that Martian DNA can be concentrated from Martian water‚ even if very highly diluted‚ and even if Martian “DNA” differs from Earth DNA. On Mars‚ as it exists today‚ information polymers cannot be generated without life (unlike other less reliable biosignatures such as methane)‚ ensuring that life will not be “detected” if it is not present (the “false positive problem”). Citing a previous study by SETI Institute senior scientist John D. Rummel and NASA Planetary Protection Officer (PPO) Catherine A. Conley‚ Benner and his team note that there are several fallacies when it comes to proposed efforts to search for extant evidence of Martian life. Addressing the planetary protection policy of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR)‚ Rummel and Conley concluded that there are four significant “shortcomings in their plans to look for evidence of life on Mars.” First‚ they addressed the contention that appropriate levels of spacecraft cleanliness are unaffordable. Second‚ they challenged claims that there are major risks in assuming life could be identified through nucleic acid sequence comparison‚ especially if those sequences are obtained from a “Special Region” contaminated with Earth life. They also challenge the contention that present-day exploration by “dirty robots” is preferable to the possibility of contamination spread by future human exploration and that the potential effects of contaminating resources and environments essential to future human missions to Mars were not being addressed. Based on these considerations‚ Rummel and Conley concluded that scientists did not consider the detection of extant life on Mars “a high priority.” Graphic depiction of the Agnostic Life System (ALF) to screen for introduced and alien life. Credit: Steven Benner According to Benner and his colleagues‚ the purpose of this NIAC project is to change this view before the arrival of crewed missions‚ which will undoubtedly complicate the search for indigenous Martian life. Therefore‚ the plans for crewed missions in the coming decades place a very strict deadline on the search or life on Mars‚ but also offer an opportunity that can be exploited. In particular‚ Benner and his team indicate how mission proposals emphasize the need for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU)‚ especially where near-surface water ice is concerned. As they wrote: “Propellant (methane and oxygen) will be generated from that water and atmospheric carbon dioxide for the return trip back to Earth. That water ice will be mined on the scale of tens to hundreds of tons. Further‚ to maximize the likelihood of safe return of the crew to Earth‚ robotic operations that mine tons of near-surface water ice will be in place before the first human astronauts arrive. Thus‚ water mined in preparation for human arrival is correctly seen as an extremely large-scale astrobiological sample‚ far larger than dry cached rocks.” The mined water ice‚ they claim‚ will contain dust deposited over time by Martian dust storms‚ allowing scientists to obtain information about the accessible surface of Mars. Therefore‚ the massive sample of water ice will enable a highly sensitive survey of the Martian surface for potential signs of life. The ALF system will allow for the extraction of genetic polymers – be they alien or the result of contamination from robotic missions. The ALF system also offers tools to conduct partial in-situ analysis of any polymers that dissociate in water (polyelectrolytes). According to Benner‚ the system is called “agnostic” because of how it “exploits what synthetic biology taught us about the limited kinds of Darwinian genetic molecules.” Since it is an add-on system‚ including an ALF system represents a negligible burden in terms of mass and energy to any existing mining operation. Despite that‚ it will allow for science operations that will establish a strict lower limit on the amount of biomaterial that is accessible on the Martian surface and will do so before a human presence is established on Mars. As Benner and his team summarized‚ the system will also be useful on other bodies humanity hopes to explore for signs of life (and possibly settle) someday. “[I]t will do so before Homo sapiens becomes a multiplanetary species. And “multiplanetary” is the correct term‚” they wrote. “This add-on ALF system can be used on all celestial bodies where water will be mined to search for and analyze life‚ indigenous or introduced‚ Earth-like or alien. This includes Europa‚ Enceladus‚ the Moon‚ and exotic locales on Earth.” Further Reading: NASA The post NASA Selects New Technology to Help Search for Life on Mars appeared first on Universe Today.

About 164 light-years away‚ a Hot Jupiter orbits its star so closely that it takes fewer than four days to complete an orbit. The planet is named WASP-69b‚ and it’s losing mass into space‚ stripped away by the star’s powerful energy. The planet’s lost atmosphere forms a trail that extends about 560‚000 km (350‚000 miles) into space. Scientists know that stars can strip mass from planets that get too close. It’s called mass loss‚ and it’s driven by extreme UV (EUV) and/or X-ray energy from a star and by the stellar wind. It’s not a rare phenomenon‚ even though researchers don’t fully understand it. But seeing the actual stream of gas coming from the planet is a rare opportunity to study mass loss. Researchers have known about WASP-69b’s predicament and have predicted how much of the planet’s atmosphere is being stripped away. Previous research even identified a very small‚ subtle tail. But new research shows that the tail‚ which would stretch from Earth to well beyond the Moon in our Solar System‚ is much longer than previously thought. The new research is titled “WASP-69b’s Escaping Envelope Is Confined to a Tail Extending at Least 7 Rp.” It’s published in The Astrophysical Journal. The first author is Dakotah Tyler‚ a doctoral student in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at UCLA. “Work by previous groups showed that this planet was losing some of its atmosphere and suggested a subtle tail or perhaps none at all‚” said first author Tyler. “However‚ we have now definitively detected this tail and shown it to be at least seven times longer than the planet itself.” As we began to detect more and more exoplanets with NASA’s Kepler mission‚ followed by the TESS mission‚ something became apparent. There are gaps in the exoplanet population. The Neptunian Desert refers to the dearth of Neptune-sized planets on two to four-day orbits around their stars. The Small Planet Radius Gap refers to a dearth of exoplanets with radii between 1.5 and 2 times Earth’s radius. Scientists think that mass loss plays a role in both phenomena‚ and it’s unlikely that there’s a lack of exoplanets that form in the Gap and the Desert. But the details of atmospheric loss are not well understood. WASP-69b and its extended tail of stripped gas give astronomers a rare opportunity to study it more closely. “Studying the escaping atmospheres of highly irradiated exoplanets is critical for understanding the physical mechanisms that shape the demographics of close-in planets‚” the authors write in their paper. Previous researchers found the tail‚ so Tyler and his co-authors knew where to look. But Tyler and the other researchers used a much larger telescope for their observations. They used the 10-meter telescope at the Keck Observatory and its high-resolution spectrograph‚ NIRSPEC. They found that the stream‚ which is primarily hydrogen and helium‚ is much longer than thought. This figure from the research illustrates some of the findings. In the left panel‚ T1 through 4 represent observation times with Keck. The orange circle is the star‚ and the black circle is WASP-69b. The right panel shows what the system would look like from the top down. Image Credit: Tyler et al. 2023. “Over the last decade‚ we have learned that the majority of stars host a planet that orbits them closer than Mercury orbits our sun and that the erosion of their atmospheres plays a key role in explaining the types of planets we see today‚” said co-author and UCLA professor of physics and astronomy Erik Petigura. “However‚ for most known exoplanets‚ we suspect that the period of atmospheric loss concluded long ago. The WASP-69b system is a gem because we have a rare opportunity to study atmospheric mass-loss in real-time and understand the critical physics that shape thousands of other planets.” There are two different forces at work here. Radiation from the star and the stellar wind. Both forces work together to strip away WASP-69b’s and then shepherd it away. The tail is a direct result of how both of those forces work together. “These comet-like tails are really valuable because they form when the escaping atmosphere of the planet rams into the stellar wind‚ which causes the gas to be swept back‚” Petigura said. “Observing such an extended tail allows us to study these interactions in great detail.” Neutral hydrogen is really hard to see‚ so the researchers measured the Helium in the tail and used it to estimate the overall mass loss from the planet. One of the reasons that previous research found a smaller tail is because the telescope they used is smaller. Larger telescopes gather more photons from whatever they’re observing. The figure below compares the current research‚ done with a larger telescope‚ with the previous observations. Both show helium light curves. This figure from the research shows two nights of observations from CARMENES with four observations from the much larger Keck and its NIRSPEC instrument. Notice that the point-to-point scatter for CARMENES is much larger than with NIRSPEC‚ which has a higher signal-to-noise ratio. NIRSPEC’s better performance allowed the researchers to measure the helium more accurately. Image Credit: Dakotah et al. 2024 The researchers say that the star is losing about one Earth mass of material every 100 million years. But WASP-69b is a massive gas giant of about 0.29 Jupiter’s mass. This means that it would take an awfully long time to be reduced to nothing. But it’ll never be reduced to nothing‚ according to the authors. “At around 90 times the mass of Earth‚ WASP-69b has such a large reservoir of material that even losing this enormous amount of mass won’t affect it much over the course of its life. It’s in no danger of losing its entire atmosphere within the star’s lifetime‚” Tyler said. Exoplanets may also stabilize once they’ve been reduced to a specific mass. Some research shows that exoplanets with atmospheres that are double the radius of their core are the most stable and resist atmospheric loss. If the atmosphere is larger than this‚ then the planet is susceptible to atmospheric erosion and will eventually reach the more stable state outlined above. For planets with smaller atmospheres than this‚ runaway atmospheric loss is likely. This figure is from separate research published in 2017. It shows the erosion of atmospheres as a function of time for planet models with a range of initial envelopes. Low-mass envelopes are stripped clean‚ while higher-mass ones are herded toward a stable state. Image Credit: Owen and Wu‚ 2017. This new research is based on fairly brief observations. The authors point out that there’s likely more variability in the system that changes the mass loss rate over time. Understanding the variability is critical to understanding the mass loss in more detail. “Repeat observations are valuable to probe any variability in the outflow properties‚ especially with different instruments‚” they conclude. The post A Hot Jupiter With a Comet-Like Tail appeared first on Universe Today.

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Whether they came from the store or a tree in your backyard‚ when comes to washing apples‚ a cursory rinse under a tap is never enough. A pantry staple is key.