Since the very beginning of civilization‚ and probably even before‚ hats have formed an important function in human society. Designed not just for protective reasons but for aesthetics‚ hats became associated with popular fashion‚ becoming associated with groups of people and national identities‚ as well as the wearer’s standing in society.   They have been made from all sorts of materials‚ from leather and fur to cotton‚ felt‚ wool‚ and even plastic.   Like the cherry on top of a cake‚ hats became the finishing touch of outfits throughout the millennia. Different styles became predominant in different places and at different times.   Here are 7 of the most popular hats in history.   1. The Medieval Hood &; its Evolution into the Chaperon A woman wearing a chaperon as a hood. Source: Celtic Webmerchant   Living a life out in the fields in Europe was a common practice amongst the vast majority of Europe’s population during the medieval era. Protective hoods were common‚ and the style at the time involved a hood with a small cape that was fastened in the front. The hood itself often had a tail called a liripipe and could be made from wool to provide warmth in the colder times of year or lighter materials that protected the wearer from the sun during the hot summer months.   Indoors‚ however‚ this hood was constrictive‚ especially when relaxing with one’s friends over a few mugs of ale. The popular fashion was to turn the hood inside out‚ roll it up‚ and wear it on the head‚ with the tail of the hood hanging down the side. Thus‚ wearing the hood as a hat was born‚ becoming the dominant fashion in many parts of medieval Europe.    The Tax Collectors by Quentin Massys‚ ca. 1525 – 1550. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the English language at the time‚ a distinction was made between the two styles‚ and the garment generally became known as a chaperon when it was worn as a hat. When worn as a hood‚ it was simply called a hood.   The styles became more ostentatious as the decades wore on‚ and more cloth was used‚ along with fancier designs to denote affluence. By the 1480s‚ however‚ the style was in decline‚ and although the chaperon continued to be worn‚ its heyday of being one of the most popular medieval hats was over.   2. The Bowler Hat A man wearing a bowler hat. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Today‚ the bowler hat is commonly associated with Englishmen in suits carrying an umbrella while walking to work. Before this stereotype‚ however‚ the bowler hat was commonplace on the heads of the British and American working classes.   The bowler hat entered English society in 1849 when hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler were contracted to provide hats for James Lock &; Co. of St James’s. The company required hats for a gamekeeper who‚ on horseback‚ had difficulty with his top hat and low-hanging branches. A more close-cropped hat style was needed‚ and Thomas and William Bowler thus introduced English society to their new design.   The hat quickly became popular throughout various parts of English society. For the first few decades after their introduction‚ they were popular amongst the working classes‚ but by the end of the 19th century‚ they had become associated with people who worked in the financial district of London.   The hat‚ however‚ wasn’t confined to the British Isles. It found a place on the heads of Americans. Contrary to popular belief‚ “cowboy hats” weren’t the most popular and widespread in the American West. It was the bowler hat‚ which in America was called the “derby‚” and it was especially popular among cowboys and railroad workers because it sat snugly on the head and didn’t blow off in windy conditions.   From South America to Norway to the Philippines‚ the bowler became part of society. In Britain‚ the hat’s popularity declined in the 1970s‚ but it is still part of the uniform for policewomen.   3. The Fedora A publicity shot for Dead Reckoning (1947) starring Lizabeth Scott and Humphrey Bogart. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The fedora appeared in the late 19th century in the United States‚ and like the Stetson‚ it has come to be widely associated with American fashion and culture.   In 1882‚ playwright Victorien Sardou performed his play F&;eacute;dora‚ named after the main character of the work‚ Princess F&;eacute;dora Romazoff. Her outfit included a soft-brimmed hat with a center crease‚ and the play made it fashionable. The hat became popular among women’s rights movements.   Fedoras became popular in Britain as well as in America‚ and in the following decades‚ the style was also adopted into men’s fashion. After Prince Edward (later King Edward VIII) started wearing one‚ the hat’s popularity soared‚ and it competed with the bowler/derby for the most popular hat in both countries.   In the United States‚ however‚ the fedora became the staple of men’s fashion‚ replacing the derby. The hat also evolved wider brims than the British counterpart and was further popularized in cinema‚ where the country’s most famous celebrities were shown wearing their fedoras.   This trend was especially prevalent in film noir‚ and as a result‚ the fedora is often associated with gumshoe detectives as well as gangsters and Tommy guns. The fedora finally went out of fashion at the end of the 1960s but made a comeback in the 2000s as part of hipster culture.   4. The Ushanka A Soviet era ushanka. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although fur hats of similar designs have been used by many cultures in the colder climes of the Northern Hemisphere‚ one hat of this type became famous above all others – the Russian ushanka.   However‚ the popularization of this hat is a fairly modern phenomenon and started during Soviet times. From the October Revolution to the Winter War against Finland‚ the standard issue hat to the Russian army was the pointed felt hat called a budenovka. While this hat proved inadequate for the harsh winters on the Finnish border‚ the Finns were wearing hats similar to the ushanka called turkislakki‚ which proved to be much warmer.   Ushankas were adopted by the Soviet military‚ as well as in the Warsaw Pact countries after the war. The popularity of the hat even spread to Western countries and is used to various degrees by military and police personnel in Canada and in some American states.   5. The Beret A British soldier and Belgian soldiers in the background all wearing berets. Source: pxhere.com   Although used the world over‚ especially in the military‚ the beret is undeniably symbolic of French culture and a fashion statement that has found a home on the heads of soldiers everywhere.   Historically‚ the beret has its origins in ancient times in South and Southwestern Europe. It was worn in Crete by the Minoans and in Italy by the Etruscans and the Romans.   In the modern era‚ the beret achieved particular popularity in France and Spain‚ where it was associated with the working classes. After the 1920s‚ it was adopted by a broader spectrum of society and became particularly popular among the nobility as well as artists. It also became extremely popular in militaries worldwide and has even become a standard issue in countries with no cultural connection with the beret.   Further popularized by the iconic imagery of Che Guevara‚ the beret is also worn as a fashion statement relating to rebellion‚ which is ironic given its prevalence in sectors of authority.   6. The Turban A man wearing a traditional turban. Source: pexels.com   Turbans are headwear based on the idea of winding cloth around the head. Various styles of turbans are worn by various cultures from North Africa to the Balkans‚ the Middle East‚ and Southern Asia.   The earliest evidence of a turban comes from a Mesopotamian sculpture dated to 2350 BCE‚ and it is highly likely that turbans were worn long before this date.   Although worn by many cultures‚ certain styles of turbans have come to be widely representative of religious identity. The most notable of these are Islam and Sikhism‚ while the Coptic Orthodox Christians of East Africa are also noted for wearing turbans. In Hinduism‚ certain cultures in India relate the turban to religious identity.   In Afghanistan‚ the turban is part of the national dress‚ and many styles are worn throughout the country.   In Crete‚ an item of clothing called a sariki is commonly worn as part of the national dress. It is a knitted scarf with a mesh design with fringes that look like tears. It can be worn around the neck and shoulders as a scarf or on the head as a turban.   The list of specific turbans is extremely long and includes the gaung baung worn in Myanmar‚ the pagri in Bangladesh‚ the khăn vấn or khăn Ä‘&;oacute;ng worn by the ethnic Vietnamese‚ the ghutrah worn in the Arabian Peninsula‚ and many‚ many others.   7. The Baseball Cap A woman wearing a baseball cap. Source: pxhere.com   Undeniably‚ the most popular hat in the world today‚ the baseball cap‚ is‚ as its name suggests‚ a product of American baseball.   In 1860‚ the forerunner to the baseball cap was born and was worn by the Brooklyn Excelsiors baseball team. Through the decades‚ the design would evolve into the modern six-paneled round cap worn today throughout virtually the entire world.   Originally sporting baseball team logos‚ baseball caps may display company names‚ artistic designs‚ messages‚ and a host of other embroidered ideas on the front.   Despite their reputation as casual wear‚ baseball caps are also used by military and police forces around the world.   Hats. Source: pxhere.com   With so many different types of hats for different environments and so many cultures with different cultural preferences‚ hundreds of hats can be considered popular worldwide. And as fashion is an ever-changing environment‚ there will surely be new hat designs that will rise in popularity.

  Created in 1866‚ the Buffalo Soldiers were the first regular African American Army units. A special Congressional act allowed for their formation‚ lifting a previous ban. Four regiments were created to serve in the West. These men served with distinction‚ earning respect from their foes and friends‚ and fighting racism.   The Early Years Buffalo Soldiers 25th Infantry Source: Library of Congress   Many Buffalo Soldiers that joined were ex-slaves‚ often illiterate and poor. All enlistments lasted five years‚ with soldiers receiving $13 monthly‚ food‚ and some education. Most officers were white. These regiments served in the West‚ stationed at forts to battle the Native tribes. Lesser-known responsibilities included protecting settlers‚ cattle drives‚ and mail routes. All four African American regiments served at forts scattered over the West‚ from Fort Walla Washington to Fort Apache‚ Arizona.   First of the Deployments 10th Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers Source: National Park Service   By 1867‚ the first Buffalo regiments traveled quickly‚ entering the Indian Wars. From then to the early 1890s‚ the Buffalo Soldiers fought in most of the campaigns. Around twenty percent of all U.S. Army soldiers participating were African American. The regiments tangled with famous tribes such as the Apache‚ Comanche‚ and Sioux from the Great Plains to the hot Arizona deserts. The nickname of the Buffalo Soldiers may have come from the Plains Tribes‚ who thought the soldiers’ hair resembled buffalo manes. The formidable warriors respected the Buffalo Soldier’s toughness‚ similar to their namesake.   The 1870 Battle of Kickapoo Springs exemplified their bravery—the 9th Cavalry’s Troop F‚ led by Sgt. Emanuel Stance‚ searching for two kidnapped children‚ came across Native American rustlers. They charged in firing‚ and their foes retreated. The soldiers charged into two more groups the next day‚ scattering them with volleys. For his actions‚ Sgt. Stance won the Buffalo Soldiers’ earliest Medal of Honor‚ the first of eighteen.    Off to War Buffalo Soldiers San Juan Hill Source: Wikimedia Commons   Not long after‚ the1898 Spanish-American War erupted. The U.S.S. Maine had exploded‚ causing tensions between the U.S. and Spain. The U.S. declared war soon after. The U.S. Army always remained small between major wars and the war needed experienced soldiers. All four Buffalo Soldier regiments went–the 9th and 10th Cavalries and the 24th and 25th Infantry – 15‚000 soldiers in total.   The Buffalo Soldiers fought in most battles‚ including the Battle of San Juan Hill. Along with Roosevelt’s famous “Rough Riders‚” the units charged dismounted up the hill in a hail of artillery and rifle fire—many units mixed from the relentless strain. But a unit from the 10th Cavalry reached the top first but lost twenty percent of its men. Also‚ future General of the Army Pershing served in the 10th Cavalry‚ earning the nickname “Black Jack” Pershing. In his reports‚ he commended the Buffalo Soldiers for their bravery.   The Buffalo Soldiers‚ being experienced soldiers‚ next deployed to the Philippine-American War to fight guerrillas from 1899-1903. Though they fought‚ some African American soldiers had mixed feelings about the conflict‚ witnessing racism against the Filipinos. This and lousy treatment made thirty Buffalo Soldiers desert; before this‚ the Black regiments historically had the lowest desertion rate in the U.S. Army.   New Assignments U.S. Army Punitive Headquarters Source: Library of Congress   The Black regiments were reassigned to different Western forts‚ keeping the peace and patrolling. One not well-known role given was Park Ranger. Besides catching poachers or chasing timber thieves‚ the 9th Cavalry built trails in Sequoia and Yosemite National Parks. The characteristic hat now worn by Park Rangers was modeled after the Buffalo Soldiers’ hats. One experimental unit even rode bicycles across the West.   Up to and Into World War I US military forces in northern Mexico during the punitive expedition to capture Mexican rebel Pancho Villa. Source: The United States Army   America entered World War I only after Germany offered to ally with Mexico. Before this‚ war nearly occurred between Mexico and the U.S. after Mexican revolutionaries raided across the border‚ killing and looting. An expedition under “Black Jack” Pershing attempted to capture Pancho Villa‚ their leader. The 10th Cavalry participated‚ the only Buffalo unit to do so. Despite their history‚ the original Buffalo Soldier regiments stayed in the U.S. during the Great War. New Black divisions deployed instead. Many protested even this‚ but wars need manpower.   A Constant Foe 1917 Court Martial of Buffalo Soldiers Source: Library of Congress   Prevalent racism threw up obstacles against the Buffalo Soldiers from the get-go. Congress had to vote to create all four regiments- the U.S. Army was segregated. White officers refused to command such troops‚ either because of prejudice or professional stigma. Across the West‚ Buffalo Soldiers faced Jim Crow laws‚ violence‚ and hatred. Sometimes‚ their frustrations boiled over. The Buffalo Soldiers created a proud history‚ one that defied racism‚ showing that Black soldiers could serve and fight. The U.S. military finally desegregated in 1948‚ partly because of their efforts.

  The unification of England is often seen as a solely West Saxon venture‚ leaving out the role of the Kingdom of Mercia. However‚ Mercia played a vital role as Wessex’s ally and partner in the fight against Viking invaders and in establishing a unified English kingdom. This article will show how Mercia was irreversibly changed from a mighty kingdom to an Earldom subject to the West Saxon Kings as a result of this process of unification.   The Kingdom of Mercia and the Great Heathen Army Map of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms in England‚ by Earle Wilbur Dow‚ 1907‚ Source: Englishhistory.net   Ninth-century England comprised four kingdoms: East Anglia‚ Mercia‚ Northumbria‚ and Wessex. Despite a history of war‚ violence‚ and rivalry‚ the 840s-850s saw relatively peaceful relations between these kingdoms. This was likely motivated by a collective belief that Viking raiders were the real enemy.   By the mid-ninth century‚ these Scandinavian pirates had devastated several coastal regions of England. In response‚ Mercia began to work closely with its southern neighbor‚ Wessex. In the 850s‚ we see closer economic ties between the two kingdoms and more interaction between their nobles and the marriage of King Burgred of Mercia (852-874) to &;AElig;thelswith‚ the daughter of the King of Wessex‚ further strengthened relations.   Yet the invasion of the Great Viking Army in 865 would set England on an entirely new course. No longer content with loot and plunder‚ the Vikings began to conquer and settle. By 871‚ they had conquered East Anglia and Northumbria and received tribute payments from Mercia and Wessex. Mercia suffered a further setback in 874 when King Burgred was forced into exile by the Viking leaders in England. His successor‚ King Ceolwulf II (874-877/9)‚ could only appease the invaders by giving up the eastern half of Mercia.   Ealdormen &;AElig;thelred and Mercia’s Decline Map of the route of the Great Heathen Army in England‚ by David Hill‚ 2022‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wessex also struggled with Viking invasions‚ being attacked in 871‚ 875‚ 876‚ 877 and 878. However‚ under the leadership of King Alfred (871-899)‚ the West Saxons decisively defeated the Viking army at the Battle of Ethandun 878. The defeated Guthrum accepted baptism‚ agreed to peace with Wessex and‚ with Alfred’s blessing‚ set himself up as the new King of East Anglia.   Meanwhile‚ Ceolwulf II disappeared from the historical record in 877. A successor‚ &;AElig;thelred‚ is not recorded until 881. He inherited a Mercia‚ now half its former size and at war with the Welsh — an easy target for future Viking attacks. Since he does not appear to have had any dynastic links to his predecessors‚ some may have seen him as illegitimate‚ and he likely faced internal opposition. After a conclusive defeat in his war with the Welsh at the Battle of Conway 881‚ &;AElig;thelred turned to Wessex for protection.   By 883‚ a land charter in Worcester‚ Mercia‚ records him governing as an “Ealdormen of Mercia…with the consent of King Alfred” (Ealdormen was the senior noble title in England). Alfred was no stranger to the Mercians; his sister (Burgred’s wife) was a former Mercian Queen; his wife‚ Ealhswith‚ was Mercian and her brother‚ &;AElig;thelwulf‚ was a prominent Mercian Ealdormen.   Alfred’s “Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons” Map of Britain in 886‚ “English Mercia and Wessex” shows Alfred’s kingdom‚ by Bodrugan‚ 2006‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The motivations for both men are clear. &;AElig;thelred received Alfred’s backing‚ protecting him from his domestic rivals within Mercia and the Welsh and Viking threats he faced. For Alfred‚ receiving &;AElig;thelred’s submission provided him with a valuable ally in the wars with the Vikings. This provided a framework for a Southern English-Christian coalition‚ which had shared anti-Viking goals and a desire for stability after a period of chaos.   The agreements made between &;AElig;thelred and Alfred are not immediately obvious. The aforementioned land charter of 883 tells us that by using the title “Ealdormen‚” &;AElig;thelred recognized that he was no longer a king or an independent ruler. It also tells us that &;AElig;thelred acknowledged Alfred as his superior and perhaps his king.   However‚ by the late 880s‚ Alfred adopted the new title “King of the Anglo-Saxons” (Angles representing Mercia and Saxons representing Wessex). This demonstrated that Alfred’s perception of his agreement with &;AElig;thelred was not the annexation of Mercia into Wessex but rather the formation of a new kingdom with a pan-English/Anglo-Saxon identity.   The Status of &;AElig;thelred’s in Alfred’s Kingdom Monogram Penny of Alfred the Great minted in London‚ c. 871-899‚ Source: The Royal Mint Museum‚ London   &;AElig;thelred’s status in Alfred’s new kingdom is challenging to define. Historian Tim Clarkson described him as a “King in all but name.” Indeed‚ he was called “King of the Mercians” by the late 10th-century chronicler &;AElig;thelweard. Despite this‚ he never personally used this royal title after his 883 agreement with Alfred.   Furthermore‚ there are many characteristics of traditional Anglo-Saxon kingship that &;AElig;thelred did not possess. For example‚ under &;AElig;thelred‚ the Mercians followed Alfred’s law code and minted coins on his behalf. Yet‚ in some respects‚ &;AElig;thelred remained the heir to his royal Mercian predecessors. He was the leader of the Mercian army and held his own court in Mercia rather than being a regular attendee at Alfred’s court. Reflecting this ambiguity are the several titles‚ which &;AElig;thelred used in his charters‚ including Chief‚ Ealdormen‚ Lord‚ Patricius‚ Ruler‚ and Subregulus. It is perhaps most appropriate to see his status as somewhere between a king and a powerful nobleman operating within the confines of Alfred’s kingdom.   Alfred’s Respect for Mercian Customs Anglo-Saxon Charter of &;AElig;thelred and &;AElig;thefl&;aelig;d in 901‚ photographed by Dudley Mies‚ 2014‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Alfred managed his relations with Mercia carefully‚ recognizing the need to respect their traditions and customs. We see this in Alfred’s law code‚ for example. Rather than imposing West Saxon law upon the Mercians‚ he formulated a new law code inspired by previous kings of Mercia and Wessex.   Another example is London. The town had previously been part of Mercia before it fell to Viking invaders in the early 870s. When Alfred captured London in the mid-880s‚ he handed it over to the protection of Ealdormen &;AElig;thelred‚ once again demonstrating his respect for Mercian traditions.   However‚ the greatest honor &;AElig;thelred received was his marriage to Alfred’s daughter &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d. This strengthened ties between the two men‚ who were now family. Also‚ &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d’s mother was from a respected Mercian family of royal descent‚ providing &;AElig;thelred with a degree of legitimacy he may have previously lacked in Mercia. This may be considered an insufficient exchange for Mercia’s loss of independence. However‚ &;AElig;thelred had to embrace the new reality of governing a weakened Mercia‚ which‚ above all else‚ needed stability and protection.   Edward‚ &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d and the Continued Alliance Silver Penny of Edward the Elder minted in East Anglia‚ c. 920-924‚ Source: cngcoins.com   &;AElig;thelred remained an ally of Wessex for the rest of his life. When Wessex was invaded by a Viking army from across the English Channel in 892‚ he stood with the West Saxons‚ leading the Mercian army to aid his father-in-law‚ culminating in the Viking defeat at the Battle of Butingdon in 893.   Alfred died in 899‚ being succeeded by his son‚ Edward‚ who re-established relations with &;AElig;thelred on the same terms as his father had. Edward even sent his eldest son‚ &;AElig;thelstan‚ to be brought up at the Mercian court. The success of this alliance was proved once again in 910‚ when the Viking army of York led an invasion deep into Mercia‚ only to be decisively crushed by joint Mercian-West Saxon forces at the Battle of Tettenhall‚ resulting in the death of three Danish Viking kings.   &;AElig;thelred’s death came the following year. With no male heir‚ the Mercian throne went to his wife. &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d’s succession was‚ in many ways‚ a sign of continuity. As Edward’s sister‚ she maintained links with Wessex. She had also previously led the Mercians on behalf of &;AElig;thelred when he was ill; furthermore‚ she was descended from the Mercian kings of old‚ giving her a legitimate claim to the Mercian throne.   The Conquest of the Danelaw  Statue of &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d recently built outside Tamworth Railway Station to commemorate 1‚100 years since her death‚ photographed by Anna Toone‚ 2018‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons.   The first four years of &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d’s reign consisted primarily of building fortifications on her border. Then‚ with her borders secure and the Danes weakened from Tettenhall‚ she and her brother began an offensive campaign into Viking-held territory. By 915‚ Edward had conquered Essex and established control of the towns of Hertford‚ Buckingham‚ and Bedford. After this‚ he followed up with the conquest of the kingdom of East Anglia and much of the East Midlands.   The contemporary Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes Edward’s ruthlessness in taking the fortress of the King of East Anglia; “they broke into it [the fortress]‚ and slew the king‚ and Earl Toglos‚ and Earl Mann his son‚ and his brother‚ and all them that were therein‚ and who were resolved to defend it.” &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d similarly made progress‚ capturing the fortresses of Derby (917) and Leicester (918). She also managed to form an alliance with the rulers of Scotland and Strathclyde in opposition to the Viking leader‚ King Ragnall of York.   By 918‚ Alfred’s children had taken back almost all of Southern England. Historian Frank Stenton described this military operation as “One of the best sustained and most decisive campaigns in the whole of the Dark Ages.”    Edward’s Succession to Mercia and &;AElig;lfwynn’s Deposal Remains of St Oswald’s Priory‚ Gloucester‚ where &;AElig;thelred and &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d were buried‚ photographed by Philafrenzy‚ 2013‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The harmony between the Mercians and the West Saxons would be briefly interrupted by the death of &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d in 918. Within months‚ a power struggle broke out between Edward and her daughter‚ &;AElig;lfwynn. &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d appears to have been grooming &;AElig;lfwynn for rule. She attended councils in Wessex in 903 and Mercia in 904 and 915. While &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d similarly was held in high status before she came to rule Mercia‚ this was only the case after marrying &;AElig;thelred.   Being involved in matters of state for an unmarried woman‚ as &;AElig;lfwynn was‚ was unprecedented and must be a sign of preparation for leadership. However‚ either by convincing the Mercian nobility or through more forceful measures‚ by the end of 918‚ Edward deposed &;AElig;lfwynn. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that &;AElig;lfwynn “was deprived of all dominion over the Mercians and carried into Wessex‚” adding that “all the population in Mercia turned to him [Edward].” Edward’s motives are not entirely certain. He may have been skeptical of &;AElig;lfwynn’s loyalty to Wessex. Or perhaps the Mercian nobility may have preferred Edward‚ who had already achieved great martial feats‚ as their leader to defend them from King Ragnall. Alternatively‚ Edward may have simply sought to exploit a moment of uncertainty in Mercia for his own ends.   An End to Mercian Autonomy  Stained glass window showing Alfred and Edward‚ photographed by Paul Kelly‚ Wells Cathedral‚ Somerset‚ Source: King-alfred.com   Rather than appointing a deputy to govern on his behalf‚ Edward assumed direct control of Mercia. This fundamentally changed the Mercian-West Saxon settlement established by &;AElig;thelred and Alfred in 883. Despite this radical shift‚ he continued the policy constructed by &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d in the north.   Working with his new northern allies‚ in 920‚ he convinced King Ragnall to agree to a peace treaty with Bamburgh‚ Mercia‚ Scotland‚ and Strathclyde. However‚ some of his new Mercian subjects were unhappy with his rule. It has suggested that Edward may have made land appropriations of Mercian estates to his West Saxon followers. He may have also initiated the division of Mercia into shires based on the West Saxon administrative model. This ignored the pre-existing organizational structure of Mercia‚ based upon ancient tribal groups.   To many in Mercia‚ Edward appeared not to be respecting their traditions and customs. A revolt at Chester in 924 demonstrated the popular discontent with his rule. While Edward defeated the uprising‚ he was fatally wounded during the campaign and died in July 924.   A Mercian Prince from Wessex Frontispiece of Bede’s Life of St Cuthbert‚ showing King &;AElig;thelstan presenting a copy to Cuthbert‚ c. 930‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Edward’s death would again demonstrate the strain between the Mercians and the West Saxons‚ who each backed separate sons of his for the succession. Only when the West Saxon candidate‚ &;AElig;lfweard‚ died in August 924 was Edward’s kingdom restored‚ with Wessex accepting the Mercian candidate‚ &;AElig;thelstan‚ as their new king. &;AElig;thelstan appealed to both peoples‚ as he was a West Saxon by birth but had spent most of his life in Mercia.   This dualism he embodied was recognized by his coronation oath‚ pronouncing him as “equally” King of the Angles and the Saxons. &;AElig;thelstan did receive some hostility in Winchester from his younger half-brother‚ Edwin‚ and Bishop Frithestan. This‚ however‚ was not a feeling shared across Wessex‚ where &;AElig;thelstan could hold court and royal councils without issue.   After securing his kingdom‚ &;AElig;thelstan would look northwards and‚ in 927‚ conquered Northumbria. Thus‚ the new dividing line in English politics became the English of Mercia and Wessex and the Anglo-Scandinavians of Northumbria. By comparison‚ divisions between Mercia and Wessex seemed minute and irrelevant. The goal for the Southern English would now be to control their new northern subjects.   King Edgar and the Last Lords of Mercia Depiction of King Cnut fighting Edmund Ironside in 1016‚ by Matthew Paris‚ c. 1200-1259‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Once the Northumbrians were pacified‚ the Mercian-West Saxon divide briefly returned during King Eadwig’s reign (955-959). However‚ this was a result of political rather than regional factionalism. His successor‚ King Edgar (959-975)‚ oversaw a golden age of peace and stability‚ forming a more centralized government than achieved by his predecessors. This‚ along with the appointment of his kinsman and loyal follower‚ &;AElig;lfhere‚ as Ealdormen of Mercia‚ made Mercian separatism very unlikely.   Nevertheless‚ the position of Ealdormen of Mercia remained one of the most prestigious offices in the realm. Its holder would be a dominant figure in the Midlands and a senior royal counselor. Indeed‚ &;AElig;lfhere was referred to as the “Prince of the Mercian People.” Another Mercian Ealdormen was “Ealdormen over all the kingdom of the Mercians.” It was a position of such power that King Cnut (1016-1035) in 1017 and King William I (1066-1087) in 1071 broke the Mercian Earldom into smaller lordships. Both preferred not to give such power to any one individual.   The final Earl of Mercia was Edwin (1062-1071)‚ brother-in-law of Harold Godwinson. His death‚ at the hands of his own bodyguard in 1071 after a failed revolt against William I‚ marks the end of the Earldom of Mercia.   Reflections on the Kingdom of Mercia  Offa’s Dyke‚ a series of defensive earthworks along the Mercian-Welsh border‚ one of the lasting achievements of 8th century Mercia‚ 2021‚ Source: ITV   In one sense‚ Mercia had a rather sad story. From its period of domination of Southern England during the eighth century to the death of its last earl in 1071‚ fleeing from a foreign conqueror. It was a true fall from grace. However‚ Mercia made vital military and political contributions toward forming the Kingdom of England‚ giving it an enduring legacy.   The critical turning point in its history was the Viking invasions of the 860s-870s. These invasions left Mercia plundered and cut in half‚ with weak leadership. &;AElig;thelred decision to turn to Alfred for help may have been his only realistic choice. Yet‚ it was difficult to imagine this settlement lasting in the long term.   Mercia held an awkward position‚ and its West Saxon overlord would not always share Alfred’s diplomatic skills. Nor would the rulers of Mercia and Wessex always enjoy the positive relationship that &;AElig;thelred and &;AElig;thelfl&;aelig;d had with Alfred and Edward. Perhaps Mercia would either have to eventually separate from Wessex or be absorbed into a larger West Saxon-led kingdom. It would ultimately come down to Edward’s deposal of &;AElig;lfwynn in 918‚ which would settle the matter. Nevertheless‚ it took West Saxon rulers who could appeal to the Mercians‚ such as &;AElig;thelstan and Edgar‚ to provide a more sustained unity.

  September 1‚ 1939‚ was the beginning of a new era. For six long years‚ Europe would be thrown into a maelstrom of chaos and destruction as the Germans and their allies expanded the Third Reich‚ humbling nations before them and subjecting the continent to the crushing authoritarian jackboot of Nazism.   Tens of millions of people would die‚ not just on the frontlines‚ but from mass executions and genocide as the Nazis stamped their rule over Europe.   Poland was the first to feel this onslaught.   The Buildup to the Invasion of Poland Map of Poland on the eve of the Second World War. Source: Saltaire Collection   Hitler came to power in 1933‚ and for the 12 years of Nazi rule in Germany‚ the country followed an irredentist policy‚ reforming the glory of the Second Reich by annexing neighboring territories in its bid to rebuild an empire that was destroyed by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles‚ which ended the First World War.   Annexation of neighboring territories was done under the justification of uniting German speakers into one country. Ethnic Germans living in Poland‚ however‚ formed a small minority of the country’s population‚ and instead‚ the Nazis claimed that the ethnic Germans living in Poland were subjected to persecution.   Whatever the truth of the matter‚ many German citizens in Poland were in favor of reunification with Germany. In the west of Poland‚ the Polish Corridor was land that had been taken away from Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles‚ and it separated Germany from the Free City of Danzig (today GdaÅ„sk)‚ where Germans formed a majority.   Danzig was an independent city-state formed in 1920 and was under the protection of the League of Nations‚ with special rights given to Poland as it was the only port in the Polish Corridor.   The flag of the Second Polish Republic. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Germany began making demands of Poland on the subject of Danzig. Hitler wanted to link German territory with Danzig‚ and he proposed the construction of an extraterritorial highway between Germany‚ through Polish territory‚ and into Danzig and East Prussia‚ which was a German exclave. The Polish refused‚ believing that any concessions they made would weaken their position and give the Germans increased power over their nation.   Fearing the growing power of a belligerent Germany‚ Poland signed a military alliance with France and the United Kingdom in March 1939‚ hoping that it would deter Hitler from attempting any military action.   German soldiers in 1939. Source: Store Norske Leksikon   Despite the political justifications and actions‚ Hitler viewed Poland and the Polish people with absolute contempt. In 1930‚ he wrote that the Poles and the Czechs were “rabble not worth a penny more than the inhabitants of Sudan or India.” He also stated privately that the invasion of Poland was for the purposes of Lebensraum and that Danzig was not an important issue.   Polish soldiers in 1939. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the months preceding the invasion‚ the German government began accusing the Polish government of conducting ethnic cleansing against Germans in Poland. This was part of Operation Himmler‚ a concerted propaganda effort to discredit Poland in the eyes of the local and international community.   On the night of August 31‚ the Germans carried out a series of false flag incidents along the Polish border‚ including the infamous Gleiwitz Incident‚ in which SS operatives dressed as Poles‚ seized the Gleiwitz radio station on German territory‚ and broadcast anti-German messages.   The following day‚ Poland was invaded.   The Invasion of Poland German soldiers pulling down a Polish border crossing during the initial stages of the invasion of Poland (colorized). Source: Wikimedia Commons   As dawn broke on September 1‚ 1939‚ Germany launched a surprise invasion of Poland. The main thrusts came from German-held East Prussia in the north‚ Silesia and Slovakia in the southwest‚ and from the northwest. With much of Poland’s army on the German border expecting an attack directly from the west‚ the Polish were caught completely off guard‚ and these armies were encircled.   From the very beginning‚ the Polish were overwhelmed on all fronts and in every department. Theoretically‚ they had one million men to resist the invasion‚ a not insubstantial number‚ but the Germans had mustered more than 60 divisions – over one and a half million with hundreds of thousands more to follow‚ supported by 2‚000 tanks‚ 900 bombers‚ and 400 fighter planes. The Poles planned to hold up the German armies in the west in order to buy time for the UK and France to mobilize and send troops to aid their ally. Polish hopes‚ however‚ were dashed.   The UK and France declared war on Germany on September 3‚ but neither of these countries sent troops to aid the Poles‚ and to make matters worse‚ the Soviets opened another front and invaded Poland from the east.   People looking at DC newspapers on Sept. 1‚ 1939. Source: Library of Congress   In the first days of the invasion‚ German propaganda claimed that the Polish Air Force had been destroyed on the ground. This was‚ unsurprisingly‚ a lie. The Poles had been caught unaware‚ mainly due to the direction of the German invasion and not simply the fact that it happened. The Polish had spread their air force out in expectation of conflict and were able to launch a spirited defense in the air.   The Polish‚ however‚ were outnumbered and were using vastly inferior aircraft. Polish pilots were well-trained‚ but it was not enough‚ and the Germans achieved air superiority within a very short period of time. This development would give the Germans the space to employ their Bewegungskrieg (mobile war)‚ an extremely fast and effective use of military power that combined various elements‚ all in support of each other‚ to provide an overwhelming punch through the enemy defenses. This type of warfare became more commonly known as Blitzkrieg (lightning war).   A Polish girl mourns the loss of her older sister‚ killed by a German air raid on September 13‚ 1939. Source: Julien Bryan‚ Wikimedia Commons   This new kind of warfare upset the plans not just of Poland but also the Allied intentions concerning Poland. France and the UK had declared war‚ but they felt that a few more months of military buildup were necessary before they could send any effective military relief to the beleaguered Poles. They expected the Poles to be able to hold out until then.   As for the speed of the German campaign‚ it shocked everybody involved. Even the Germans were impressed with the efficacy of their new doctrine. In the first week‚ the Poles fell back significantly under the onslaught. They abandoned the Polish Corridor‚ Greater Poland‚ and Polish Upper Silesia. Meanwhile‚ Warsaw had been suffering aerial bombardments since the beginning of the war.   German soldiers guarding a group of Jews in Sanok‚ Poland‚ September 1939. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The most significant battle during this period of the war was the Battle of Bzura‚ which lasted from September 9 to September 19. The German 8th Army had advanced rapidly eastwards and was directly west of Warsaw. With the rapid advance‚ the 8th Army’s flanks were open‚ and the Polish seized the opportunity to counterattack. They achieved temporary success but were finally overwhelmed and defeated in large part due to the uncontested superiority of the Luftwaffe.   On September 17‚ the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. This move was completely unexpected by everyone except the Germans and the Soviets themselves‚ who had created the plan to do so when they signed the non-aggression pact in late August 1939.   By the time of the Soviet invasion‚ the Polish forces had already been fragmented and operated without coordination. The day after the Soviets launched their invasion‚ the Polish government fled the country.   German troops marching through Warsaw‚ September 1939. Source: National Archives US   Polish troops were also ordered to flee the country and reorganize in France. They were also ordered to fall back from the Soviet advance and not engage the enemy. It was quite clear that the war was completely lost‚ and the Polish government tried to save what they could of the armed forces. Nevertheless‚ the fighting continued.   Just west of Warsaw‚ the city of Lw&;oacute;w (today Lviv) fell on September 22. Warsaw held out for a few days longer‚ with Polish units completely surrounded‚ offering a resilient defense. The battle‚ however‚ was a foregone conclusion‚ and the city officially surrendered on October 28.   Various pockets of Polish troops held out for a few days. The last battle of the invasion was the Battle of Kock‚ which took place between Lublin and Warsaw from October 2 to October 5. The operation was finally concluded on October 6.   As per the agreement between the Germans and the Soviets‚ Poland was split in two along the Bug River‚ with the western half being annexed by Germany and the eastern half being annexed by the Soviet Union.   Aftermath Part of the Warsaw Ghetto. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Over 100‚000 Polish soldiers managed to escape capture. They were welcomed by the British and the French and continued the fight against the Germans throughout the rest of the war. Of particular note was the high number of Polish pilots who flew combat actions against the Germans during the Battle of Britain.   Meanwhile‚ the German occupation of Poland was utterly brutal. The Warsaw Ghetto was created‚ and hundreds of thousands of Jews were interned there. From this junction‚ Jewish people were transported en masse to concentration camps and extermination camps that were built throughout Polish territory by the Nazis.   Of the 3.3 million Jews living in Poland before the war‚ only 380‚000 survived.   The ethnic Poles were also subjected to brutality on an unprecedented scale‚ with millions being killed during the occupation. Polish resistance continued throughout the occupation‚ and small groups of resistance members operated over the whole country‚ striking at targets of opportunity and harassing the Germans till the very end when they were driven out by the Soviets.   A 9-year-old boy‚ Ryszard Pajewski‚ sits in the ruins of Warsaw. Photograph by Julien Bryan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The invasion of Poland was a sad lesson for the Allied powers. They watched helplessly as Poland was struck with the power of German military might and doctrine. Such a speedy campaign had never been seen before. Seven months later‚ the French suffered the same fate as the Poles and succumbed to the same German tactics.   Fueled by faith in their ideology‚ revolutionary tactics and strategy‚ and copious amounts of drugs‚ the Nazi armies seemed unstoppable.

  It is well known that the national drink of England is tea. The country‚ however‚ also has a national alcoholic drink‚ and that drink is gin.   Originally conceived as a medicinal drink‚ gin took hold of England in the 17th century and never really let go. It served as a drink for people across the class spectrum‚ from those wishing to drown their sorrows to those wishing to relax in a summer garden.   Since then‚ gin has become a popular alcoholic drink in many countries around the world and has been the inspiration for craft enterprises wishing to bring something different to the shelves of liquor stores.   What Is Gin&;#63; Gordon’s London Dry Gin. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Gin is a colorless clear liquor made from grain mash‚ to which juniper berries are added for flavoring. There are various similar types of gin‚ with different countries having different laws as to what can be labeled as gin. In the United States‚ for example‚ gin is legally classified as an alcoholic beverage of no less than 40% alcohol with the characteristic flavor of juniper berries.   While gins may be sweetened using various ingredients and methods‚ a characteristic of “London dry gin” is that it contains no form of sweetening agent‚ and the flavor is purely botanical.   Sometimes known as “Dutch gin‚” jenever is a similar alcoholic spirit that serves as the national drink of the Netherlands. Popular varieties of it have a malty taste‚ and it is often aged in barrels previously used for American whiskey. The flavor can be reminiscent of the type of grain used to make it‚ usually barley‚ wheat‚ or rye. As such‚ the flavor of Oude Jenever can have a malty‚ woody‚ and smoky taste that resembles whiskey.   “Sloe gin” is not‚ in fact‚ gin. It is a red-colored liquor based upon gin and‚ in Britain‚ is flavored with blackthorn fruit (sloe)‚ a close relative of the plum. Sloe gin is also produced in the United States‚ with variations using fruits similar to the blackthorn.   The Forerunners of Gin Bottles of jenever on display. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The key ingredient to gin is the juniper berry‚ which gives gin its distinctive flavor. It is thought that Italian monks were using juniper berries to flavor spirits as early as the 11th century. Juniper was considered a medicinal herb and was a common ingredient found in doctors’ kits. Juniper-flavored spirits were given to patients for a wide variety of ailments. Being alcoholic‚ however‚ the medicine became more popular than it should have been.   The influence of the juniper berry in creating alcoholic drinks‚ however‚ originated in Holland and was introduced to the British Isles in the 17th century. Before it was introduced to the British Isles‚ it was introduced to English soldiers in 1585 who were stationed in Antwerp to fight the Spanish during the Eighty Years’ War.   It was handed out to soldiers about to enter combat. It is thought that the term “Dutch Courage” originated from this event.   This alcoholic beverage was jenever. Inspired by this drink‚ other spirits emerged‚ flavored with anise‚ caraway seeds‚ and other botanicals. However‚ they all had juniper added into the mix. By the 17th century‚ these drinks became widely popular in England and were sold as medicines for a host of ailments such as gallstones‚ kidney problems‚ gout‚ and lumbago.   Production Begins in England A small gin still. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1638‚ King Charles I created the Worshipful Company of Distillers in London‚ and forms of jenever began being produced in the English capital. Although success was marked‚ the spirit was not yet the icon of English culture that it grew to be.   Bathtub Gin. Source: wallpaperflare.com   A huge influence on the gin industry was provided by King William III‚ better known as William of Orange‚ the king of Holland‚ who also became king of England and Ireland on January 22‚ 1689. He promoted the drink in England‚ and it was heartily adopted. This massive surge in the popularity of gin became known as the Glorious Revolution‚ and London became the epicenter of gin production.   The Gin Craze Gin Lane by William Hogarth‚ 1751. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   In the 18th century‚ the “London Gin Craze‚” as it was known‚ created huge problems in London. It was similar in nature to the drug-fueled epidemics of today‚ and it caused concern enough for the English government to enact strict laws governing the production and consumption of gin. For the people of London‚ who were used to nothing stronger than beer‚ the effects of gin were disastrous‚ so much so that gin earned the nickname of “mother’s ruin.”   The scourge was taken seriously by the government. In 1729‚ the first “gin act” was passed. Seven acts followed‚ each trying to limit gin sales‚ and each time the populace found legal ways to work around the acts.   Three women in a gin shop divert the landlady’s attention while a match boy steals her money‚ mezzotint‚ c. 1765. Source: Wellcome Collection   In 1734‚ a notorious murder brought widespread social resistance to gin in society. On January 29‚ Judith Defour and her two-year-old child‚ Mary‚ lived at the Bethnal Green Parish Workhouse‚ where Judith also worked spinning thread. One day‚ the workhouse had dressed Mary in a new petticoat. Judith took her daughter out for a few hours‚ but when she came back to the workhouse‚ she was in a drunken state‚ and her daughter was nowhere to be found. After being interrogated‚ Judith admitted she had left her daughter in a field. Upon investigation‚ Mary was found dead. Judith had strangled her own daughter and sold her clothes to buy gin.   Judith was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death.   This incident drew huge attention‚ and the people of London began intense campaigns to end the abuse of gin in their communities. The government even hired informants in order to catch those flouting the acts.   The Gin Act of 1736‚ which imposed immensely expensive fees on gin producers‚ failed to bring about the necessary changes. The lawmakers tried to reduce the production and consumption of gin by making it illegal to produce gin without an enormously expensive license. The result was that only two people bought a license‚ while other distillers continued to ply an illegal trade and were producing low-quality gin that was often toxic.   A “puss and mew” gin dispenser. Source: Christopher Kimball on Twitter/X   As gin gripped the London populace‚ the birth rate declined so much that it dipped below the death rate. Gin was to blame. Drunken parents neglected their children‚ and levels of impotence rose as people became too drunk to function in society. Efforts to control the production of gin ended up creating an illegal network of gin producers who made their cheap gin‚ often with highly toxic substances such as turpentine and sulphuric acid.   The result was a very sick population. Poor people spent what little money they had on getting drunk and then spending the rest of their time unconscious‚ lying on straw in the back of gin shops. Meanwhile‚ informants were being targeted‚ and violent crime surged as a result of the illegal gin trade.   To hide their activities‚ gin vendors introduced the “Puss and Mew.” They would barricade themselves in a room and transact with customers via a drawer through which money and gin would pass. The trend was for customers to approach the drawer‚ say “puss‚” and insert money into the drawer. The vendor would respond with “mew‚” take the money‚ and submit gin through the drawer. Another form of this enterprise involved a slot for money and a pipe through which the vendor could pour the gin.   The symbol of an old tom cat was often used to mark these vending points‚ and as a result‚ cats became associated imagery with the gin trade. A form of sweeter gin called “old tom” was also invented and proved extremely popular at the time. This form of gin became much less popular after the London Gin Craze but has experienced a resurgence in recent years‚ especially in the craft gin market.   A bottle of old tom gin. Source: packagingoftheworld.com   To combat the toxic gin and the surge in violent crime‚ the gin trade had to be made legal again‚ and the Gin Act of 1736 was repealed in 1743.   Over the next few years‚ the government saw slow progress in controlling the epidemic. Licenses and tariffs were made affordable‚ and businesses became more legitimate and respectable. The criminal element faded as it became an unprofitable enterprise.   Nevertheless‚ gin continued to be a serious problem for the people of London. Crop failure in 1757 gave the government an unexpected success. Due to the lack of grain‚ the distilling of gin was banned. A poor harvest the following year resulted in the ban being extended. When the ban was finally lifted in 1760‚ costs of excise duties increased the cost of the final product‚ and it became more expensive to get drunk on gin than on beer. London society returned to a similar state of sobriety as before the London Gin Craze.   With the increase in price‚ gin became a more attractive drink to the upper classes.   Gin Spreads to the Colonies Pimm’s. Source: The Endless Meal   Gin became a staple of British colonialism‚ especially in warmer climes. To ward off mosquitoes and to treat malaria‚ a bitter medication called quinine was imbibed by adding it to tonic water. To cut the bitter taste‚ gin was added to the mixture and thus was born the “gin &; tonic‚” which has become a popular drink in many places around the world‚ and is still associated with British colonialism.   In places such as Kenya and India‚ where malaria was a particular problem (and still is)‚ gin was in very high demand.   Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries‚ many entrepreneurs experimented with gin as a base for liqueur.   In 1823‚ James Pimm introduced his brand of gin-based liqueur‚ which became known as Pimm’s No.1 Cup. Flavored with spices and citrus‚ the drink became popular mixed with other beverages such as lemonade.   Many other varieties of gin were also developed during this time‚ including sloe gin‚ which was flavored using the blackthorn fruit.   Gin in the 21st Century Bombay Sapphire. Source: pxhere.com   Through the 20th century‚ gin remained a popular drink‚ especially in Britain‚ where it formed part of British culture. From 2013 onwards‚ however‚ there has been a significant surge in the popularity of the drink as the lack of competition invigorated entrepreneurs to take up their own distilling businesses. The rise of craft gin has boomed as a result‚ and many small companies operate in Britain and in areas where British colonization left a cultural mark on the population‚ such as in South Africa and Australia.   Varieties of South African gin. Source: liquor.com   Today‚ gin is considered a fashionable drink and has become popular with younger generations. This is due in large part to the rise in the craft gin industry‚ which has marketed itself towards a broad demographic. This is especially true in South Africa‚ where craft gin has seen unprecedented growth. The gin market in South Africa reached US$36.6 million in 2023 and is expected to grow by over 14% annually over the next few years.   Gin &; tonic. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Gin continues to play a significant role in alcohol sales and consumption across the world. It is a popular drink in many European countries‚ the United States‚ the Philippines‚ Japan‚ India‚ and South Africa.   It is a vital ingredient in many cocktails‚ such as the Negroni‚ the Tom Collins‚ the classic G&;T‚ and many others. As such‚ gin will remain a staple for bartenders the world over.

  Since the dawn of man‚ human beings have stared in wonder at birds soaring through the sky above. While our bodies may not have been able to give us the capability to copy our feathered friends‚ our imagination could help us take flight.   For thousands of years‚ flying machines were the stuff of fantasy‚ but the modern era changed that and let us wonder no more. From tales of Daedalus and Icarus to the sketches of Da Vinci‚ from hot air balloons to supersonic fighter jets‚ this is the history of one of humankind’s greatest dreams – flight.   Flight in Ancient Times The Fall of Icarus by Jacob Peter Gowy‚ 1636-1638. Image: Museo del Prado‚ Madrid   The dream of flight has been with us for millennia. The earliest record of this dream comes in the form of stories told in ancient civilizations. In Greek legends‚ the hero Bellerophon captures a flying winged horse called Pegasus and rides him into battle against the three-headed Chimera.   In the story of Icarus and Daedalus‚ Daedalus and his son Icarus escape the clutches of King Minos by flying away on wings made of wax and feathers. Icarus flew too close to the sun‚ the wax on his wings melted‚ and he plunged to his death.   Greek legends aren’t the only ones that speak of flight. In ancient Persian legends‚ King Kaj Kaoos achieved flight by attaching eagles to his throne.   From the ancient days to the birth of modern flight‚ many people have tempted fate by attaching giant wings to their arms and jumping off heights. The results were often fatal but did not stop others from trying.   Anything that achieved flight in ancient times would have been limited to small models and children’s toys. In ancient China‚ children were playing with inventions made from bamboo that achieved flight by spinning a rotor in the same fashion that helicopters achieve flight today.   Da Vinci’s Sketches A diagram for a proposed flying machine by Leonardo da Vinci. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Leonardo da Vinci was not only a famous artist but also an engineer who experimented with many ideas that encapsulated the technological innovations of the Renaissance. He was fascinated with flight and even created a book entitled Codex on the Flight of Birds.   Da Vinci’s thoughts led him to design several theoretical models for achieving flight. The first was an idea that echoes the concept of flight achieved by helicopters. A sketch of his details a model that can be made with a helical construction attached to a spring. When released‚ the wound-up helix wing spins and lifts the model into the air.   Other sketches detail gliders and contraptions that fly by flapping their wings. The latter is called an ornithopter and is a theory that is still being studied by engineers and scientists to this day.   Hot-air balloons and Zeppelins Exp&;eacute;rience a&;euml;rostatique faite Versailles‚ 19 Sept 1783. Source: Library of Congress   On November 21‚ 1783‚ people from all over Paris gathered at the Palace of Versailles and watched in awe as a large balloon made of paper and silk ascended into the sky. This was a first for humanity‚ as this balloon carried two human passengers‚ Fran&;ccedil;ois Pil&;acirc;tre de Rozier and Fran&;ccedil;ois Laurent‚ Marquis of Arlanders.   They weren’t surprised‚ however. The Montgolfier Brothers had demonstrated their flying balloon before. In September‚ their device took a sheep‚ a duck‚ and a rooster into the skies above the royal residence.   Just a few days after the first manned hot-air balloon ride‚ the first gas-filled balloon took to the skies. Designed by Jacques Alexandre Charles and Louis Nicolas Robert‚ the balloon was filled with hydrogen‚ and it became the standard for air travel until the invention of propeller-driven flight.   Sketch of a flying machine‚ 1870. Source: Library of Congress via rawpixel.com   Travel in hot-air balloons was slow and unfeasible for any sort of actual value to the masses. Nevertheless‚ it was a step towards the future of flight. Journeys were made‚ with the first successful crossing of the English Channel being performed in 1785 by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries. A previous attempt that year had gone up in flames‚ killing two men in the process‚ in what would be a forebear of the sudden end to the evolution of balloons – Zeppelins.   The Hindenburg goes up in flames. Source: Public Domain via needpix.com   In the early 20th century‚ before airplanes became commercially available and technologically advanced enough for passenger flight‚ Zeppelins formed the first commercial airlines. They were slow but luxurious. They were thought to be relatively safe‚ and few accidents had occurred by 1937 when a single disaster put an end to the entire industry.   On May 6‚ 1937‚ the Hindenburg had flown across the Atlantic from Germany and attempted to moor in New Jersey when it suddenly and inexplicably burst into flames. Thirty-five of the 97 people on board were killed.   The Wright Brothers &; Propeller-Driven Flight Orville Wright piloting The Wright Flyer during the first flight. Source: Library of Congress   One of the most important landmarks in the history of flight was the invention of the airplane. The early days of the 19th century are when this development debuted on the world stage and changed our relationship with the sky forever.   After failing their first attempt on December 14‚ 1903‚ they tried again three days later and successfully flew the first propeller-driven airplane. The Wright Flyer (Sometimes referred to as the Kitty Hawk Flyer) could hardly have been said to take to the skies‚ but it lifted off the ground and flew 120 feet. More attempts were made during the day‚ and on the last attempt‚ the Wright Brothers’ machine flew 852 feet in 59 seconds.   This monumental occasion changed flight forever and signaled that propeller-driven aircraft would dominate the skies for decades to come.   A C-130 of the Canadian Air Force. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It didn’t take long for aircraft to advance to the point where they were being used in combat. Rickety biplanes took to the skies in the First World War‚ and the age of dogfighting began‚ accompanied by the first use of bombers.   By the Second World War‚ these aircraft had undergone even more revolutionary progress. Produced en masse‚ air power became a vital component of the armed forces‚ and it has been such to this day.   Since then‚ the technology surrounding propellers has increased‚ and they have become more efficient and powerful. No longer just a propeller‚ the turbo-prop system uses‚ intakes‚ compressors‚ reduction gearboxes‚ turbines‚ combustors‚ and propelling nozzles to drive aircraft to much faster speeds than their simple propeller-driven ancestors.   Helicopters A Royal Navy Sea King Mk4 in rescue action. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although Leonardo da Vinci came up with the theoretical underpinnings of helicopter flight‚ it would be another four and a half centuries before helicopters would take to the skies. Models using human power‚ rubber bands‚ steam‚ and electricity were created through the centuries‚ but only in the 20th century were the first crewed vehicles created.   In July 1901‚ a helicopter designed by German inventor Hermann Ganswindt took flight and was the first motor-driven‚ heavier-than-air vehicle ever to carry a human. The demonstration was recorded‚ but sadly‚ the film has been lost.   There was no single inventor of the helicopter‚ however. All the experiments that followed were improvements on earlier designs until Igor Sikorsky built and flew the first practical helicopter in 1939. Since then‚ helicopters have proven to be extremely versatile aircraft‚ as they can hover and fly at very low speeds‚ which are feats that fixed-wing aircraft are unable to achieve. As such‚ helicopters have a considerable number of uses in society today. They are used by news media to cover events from the air‚ as firefighting vehicles‚ for transport‚ for search and rescue‚ and a variety of military functions‚ including combat.   Jet Aircraft Me 262. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The advent of rocketry and jet propulsion was one of the most important milestones in aviation history. Considered by some to have invented the first jet-powered aircraft‚ Romanian Henri Coandă built his aircraft powered by a ducted fan called the “turbo-propulseur.” There is no record of the aircraft taking flight‚ despite Coandă’s claims.   Jet engines as we know them today were experimented with in the 1930s by the British‚ but it would be the Germans who would send the first jet aircraft into the sky. The first jet-powered plane to take flight was the Heinkel He 178‚ designed by Ernst Heinkel. The Germans would lead the world in aircraft technology during the Second World War‚ creating the rocket-propelled Me 163 and the first fighter jet‚ the Me 262. Despite the enormous advantage of jet aircraft‚ the Germans could not produce them in quantities large enough to make any significant impact on the outcome of the war.   Front view of a Dassault Rafale. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The decades that followed would see huge leaps in jet-powered flight‚ including the breaking of the sound barrier by Chuck Yeager in the Bell X-1 on October 14‚ 1947.   Jet engines have been powering many different types of aircraft‚ from learjets to bombers to the modern fighter jets of today‚ which boast some of the most advanced technologies available. As a result‚ jet aircraft are some of the most expensive military assets. A single F-22 Raptor‚ built by Lockheed-Martin‚ costs in the region of $125 million.   In 1969‚ the Concorde took its first flight and was introduced for public transport in 1976. These passenger aircraft used turbojet engines‚ and the fleet was retired in 2003.   The most commonly used engine in commercial airliners today is the turbofan‚ which uses design features from jets and propellers.   Rockets A space shuttle launch. Source: pexels.com   Using rockets to propel human flight is a dangerous enterprise. The fuel is highly combustible‚ and when something goes wrong‚ the outcome is almost always fatal. The Germans learned this during the Second World War with their Me 163‚ which claimed the lives of many of its own pilots‚ especially since the aircraft didn’t have landing gear&;#33;   Rockets‚ however‚ have been an invaluable resource for space flight. Without them‚ human beings would not have been able to reach outer orbit and beyond. It is through rocketry that we have taken the first steps in space exploration. While other technologies are being researched‚ the initial phase of escaping Earth’s gravity is wholly reliant on rockets.   The first rockets were used as weapons. The Chinese fired them at the invading Mongols in 1232. For centuries after‚ rockets were used as fireworks and as weapons. In the 19th century‚ the brave choice to use rockets to propel human flight was taken‚ and the advent of the Space Race made them a vital foundation for humankind’s first steps into the final frontier.   A Russian Su-57. Source: Anna Zvereva / Wikimedia Commons   For millennia‚ humankind has dreamed of taking to the skies in flight‚ and for the vast majority of our history‚ it seemed like nothing more than a pipe dream. The skies above urban areas are now frequent hosts to our flying machines‚ from balloons to propeller-driven planes to helicopters and jets and even rockets.   Technological advances in the following decades will undoubtedly add new vehicles to fly above our heads.

  Edith Pretty‚ one of England’s first female magistrates‚ owned a huge estate in south-east Suffolk known as Sutton Hoo. Pretty had been aware for some time that there was something intriguing about her Suffolk estate. Round mounds of earth loomed across it and in 1937‚ she decided the time had come to learn something about them. She contacted the Ipswich Museum‚ hoping to find a professional to excavate the mounds. The museum sent amateur archaeologist Basil Brown to Mrs. Pretty’s estate. Shortly thereafter‚ Brown began excavating‚ eventually uncovering the Anglo-Saxon world of Sutton Hoo.   1. The Sutton Hoo Mounds Aerial overview of the Anglo-Saxon burial ground at Sutton Hoo. Source: British Museum   It took nearly two years from the time of Mrs. Pretty’s initial invitation to Brown to find the riches of Sutton Hoo. The Anglo-Saxons had created an eye-catching burial ground along the River Deben. It would have caught the attention of medieval travelers and it continued to intrigue twentieth-century passersby.   Seventeen or eighteen burial mounds stood within the burial ground of Sutton Hoo. Mounds and other earthen monuments have a long tradition in cultures around the globe; thus‚ Brown had no way of knowing who built them as he began his exploration. Erosion had reduced some of the mounds over time and as he began excavating the mounds‚ Brown found that looters had robbed and damaged many of the monuments as well. Thus‚ his initial investigations revealed little about the Anglo-Saxons of Sutton Hoo‚ and the first season of excavations ended without any sparkling discoveries.   In 1939‚ at Mrs. Pretty’s direction‚ Brown began excavating the largest of the monuments‚ known as Mound 1. On day three of the excavations of Mound 1‚ one of Brown’s assistants discovered an iron rivet. All work stopped as Brown explored the area cautiously. They began digging more carefully and made the biggest discovery of the excavation yet. The rivet came from a ship.   Brown and his assistants found the outline of a ship by tediously tracing iron rivets under the mound. The ship measured approximately 27 meters (88 feet) long. It was a magnificent discovery‚ proof of the mound’s significance‚ and only a taste of what was to come.   2. The Ship Excavation of the Sutton Hoo Ship. Source: Suffolk News   The Sutton Hoo ship was a rowing ship. Since the burial of the ship‚ acidic soils had eroded away all the wood‚ but Brown’s careful excavations preserved the outline of the ship. Examination of the ship revealed that it had been built in the clinker tradition. The clinker construction technique was used by ship builders across Europe for centuries before the Sutton Hoo mounds were erected. With this technique‚ builders worked from the outside in. They fused the stem and stern posts first. Then the ship sides were installed plank by plank. Nails were driven into the planks to hold them in place. The final step was to install the ship’s internal framing. As yet‚ the Sutton Hoo ship from Mound 1 is the largest clinker ship ever found.   3. Shoulder Clasps Shoulder clasps excavated from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   The first confirmation of the potential burial of a person within the ship came in the form of two pieces of jewelry. Beneath the mound‚ archaeologists discovered what they thought were “armlets.” Today‚ archaeologists consider these artifacts to be shoulder clasps. The clasps were crafted from gold‚ millefiori glass‚ and garnet in the cloisonn&;eacute; style. The intricately decorated pieces of jewelry depicted two boars. After removing them from the earth‚ Brown entrusted the shoulder clasps to Mrs. Perry for safe keeping. She stored them under her bed for want of a museum.   4. Gold Purse lid excavated from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   More gilded finds soon followed. Within the ship‚ archaeologists quickly found a wealth of exciting artifacts. One object was a purse lid. It would have been fitted to a leather pouch and hung from the waist. This purse lid was richly designed in white‚ gold‚ and garnets. Animals were depicted on the lid of the purse.   On its own the purse lid was impressive‚ but archaeologists were even more surprised by what lay inside the purse. Inside the purse‚ archaeologists made a discovery that would help them begin to piece together the chronology of Sutton Hoo. Thirty-seven gold coins‚ three blank coins‚ and two ingots emerged from the purse. The coins came from Francia.   By analyzing the style and mint dates of the coins‚ archaeologists soon determined that the Sutton Hoo burial had to date to the early seventh century‚ approximately 610-635 CE. Now scholars could begin to consider who might have been buried in Mound 1. One early candidate was Raedwald‚ king of East Anglia from approximately 599-625 CE. The name of his queen has not survived.   A member of the Wuffingas family‚ Raedwald faced a conundrum familiar to many medieval rulers: whether to convert to Christianity or maintain his pagan faith. If Raedwald or his queen were buried at Sutton Hoo‚ it would seem they chose not to enter the afterlife in the Christian faith.   5. Whetstone  The whetstone and scepter recovered from the Sutton Hoo burial‚ Mound 1‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   Whetstones were common during the Medieval Period. They were used for sharpening tools such as swords or axes. It is unclear if the Sutton Hoo whetstone was a functional tool or a decorative item. The middle portion of the whetstone was a smooth bar that could have been useful for sharpening‚ but both ends of the whetstone were decorated with human faces. Archaeologists also found a ring with a stag attached. At first‚ they thought it was most logical that the stag was attached to a helmet‚ but there was really no physical evidence to support this theory. Next‚ archaeologists theorized that the stag belonged on top of the standard‚ but the placement of the stag there proved awkward.   It took some time‚ but eventually‚ archaeologists assessed the possibility of the whetstone and the stag. Chemical and physical analysis showed that the two artifacts were a perfect pair. Archaeologists now believe that together the whetstone and stag formed a scepter fit for a mighty Anglo-Saxon ruler to hold high above the people of Sutton Hoo.   6. Drinking Horns from Sutton Hoo Reconstructed drinking horns from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo. Source: British Museum   Among the overwhelming glitter and gold‚ archaeologists found more common artifacts such as drinking vessels. During the Anglo-Saxon period‚ drinking vessels were commonly made of wood.   Wooden drinking vessels were recovered from the Sutton Hoo burials‚ but there were also silver drinking vessels and drinking horns. Archaeologists determined that the drinking horns had been crafted from the horns of aurochs. This species of wild cattle is now extinct. Thus‚ the drinking horns offer a glimpse of an Anglo-Saxon world very different from the twenty-first century.   7. The Sword Pieces of the sword harness excavated from Sutton Hoo‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   As excavations continued‚ archaeologists also discovered weaponry. Along with other finds‚ the weapons in the Sutton Hoo burial would lend credence to the idea that this was the burial of a great warrior. One of the most iconic weapons discovered in the Sutton Hoo burial was a sword with a gold and garnet cloisonne pommel.   Archaeologists have discovered other swords throughout the medieval world‚ but the intricacy of the sword’s d&;eacute;cor was unique. Equally eye-catching was the sword harness which was decorated with garnets as well. Had the Sutton Hoo warrior never set foot on the battlefield‚ the individual’s armor alone would have marked them as a high-status‚ wealthy‚ and important member of Anglo-Saxon society.   The sword was discovered on what would have been the right-hand side of the buried person. Additional analysis by archaeologists has revealed wear patterns suggesting the owner of the sword wore the weapon on the right side but used the sword with his left hand. Archaeologists speculate that being a left-handed medieval warrior may have carried advantages‚ as opponents would have been more used to deflecting attacks from the right hand. Does this begin to explain the riches of the Sutton Hoo burial&;#63; Could the warrior’s left hand have given a battlefield advantage that created a reputation for military prowess and the consolidation of immense power and status&;#63; This explanation is possible‚ but the person buried at Sutton Hoo likely had more than a left hand to thank for the extraordinary burial in medieval Suffolk.   8. A Shield Shield reconstructed from the remains of Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo. Source: British Museum   The Sutton Hoo warrior was buried with a defensive weapon as well. Archaeologists found remnants of a shield in the burial that was just as intricately crafted as the sword. The British Museum retains the shield replicated from the finds. The board of the shield consists of modern lime wood and is decorated with gold‚ garnet‚ copper alloy‚ and iron fittings. Animal heads trace the rim of the shield‚ while birds and a dragon also decorate the shield. It is unclear if the shield was used in battle‚ but it was certainly designed to project powerful imagery.   9. A Lyre Sutton Hoo Lyre‚ 7th century. Source: British Museum   Much of the assemblage excavated from Mound 1 of Sutton Hoo was fragmented. Archaeologists worked through trial and error to interpret the artifacts. Twisted maple wood fragments‚ found in Mound 1‚ had holes bored into them. Archaeologists suspected that the wooden fragments formed a musical instrument. At first‚ scholars settled on a harp‚ but reconstruction of the harp from the maple wood left much to be desired. Taking a closer look‚ archaeologists determined that the wood fragments were in fact remnants of a lyre. As technological innovations allowed archaeologists to interrogate the past in more creative ways‚ scholars gained new insight into the lyre. Hairs attached to the lyre were linked to beavers’ fur‚ suggesting a beaver case had once kept the lyre safe.   10. The Sutton Hoo Helmet  Sutton Hoo helmet‚ photo by Geni. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Inside the ship’s burial chamber‚ archaeologists found an object wrapped in cloth. When they unwrapped the object‚ they found hundreds of fragments of corroded iron that made up the Sutton Hoo helmet. The helmet could have been worn‚ but like the sword‚ it was also an exquisite piece of metalworking. A dragon is central to the design with the eyebrows of the facemask serving as wings and the mustache working as the beast’s tail.   While archaeologists uncovered a rich array of grave goods in the Sutton Hoo ship burial‚ they did not recover everything the Anglo-Saxons buried in the mound. The body of the person buried in the grave had rotted away due to the highly acidic nature of the soil. A great deal of mystery surrounds who was buried at Sutton Hoo‚ though the grave goods attest to a person of great wealth and status. In the absence of a body‚ the Sutton Hoo helmet has gained a persona of its own‚ becoming the iconic face of the richest burial in early medieval Europe.

  The invention of the modern refrigerator was not the work of a single individual‚ but rather the culmination of multiple innovations and advancements over time. In today’s world‚ home refrigeration plays a vital role in preserving perishable foods‚ prolonging their shelf life‚ and reducing waste. With the progressive transition from passive refrigeration to mechanized systems‚ the commercial home refrigerator has become an integral part of modern consumer living.   Ancient Refrigeration The Yakhchal is an ancient Persian passive refrigerator   Before the advent of the modern refrigerator‚ people depended on snow and ice to cool their food. Ancient forms of refrigeration involved digging holes in the ground‚ lining them‚ and packing them with ice sourced locally‚ or transported from mountainous regions. The oldest known passive refrigerator‚ the Yakchal‚ was a traditional Persian structure used to store ice and preserve food in ancient Iran. Constructed primarily from mudbrick‚ sand‚ and straw‚ the Yakchal was a distinctive tall conical shape – to minimize the transfer of outside heat.    These remarkable structures featured thick walls that worked to maintain a cool interior temperature. In addition‚ they featured highly effective ventilation systems called windcatchers that channeled cool breezes into the underground chamber where the ice was stored. The Yakhal exemplifies the remarkable ingenuity and resourcefulness of ancient Persian engineering. It also serves as an ingenious early example of the use of natural principles to refrigerate perishable foods.    The Chemistry of Cooling William Cullen‚ inventor of the first known artificial form of refrigeration   William Cullen (1710-1790) initially pursued a career in medicine. Besides working as a General Practitioner (GP) at the University of Edinburgh‚ he co-founded the Royal Society of Medicine. In 1740 he was awarded the degree of Medical Doctor from the University of Glasgow.    However‚ it was Cullen’s interest in the fledgling science of chemistry that would ultimately define his legacy. In 1748‚ he put the idea of using evaporation to create low temperatures – refrigeration – to the test. In a packed lecture hall at the University of Glasgow‚ Cullen used a pump to create a vacuum within a container of diethyl ether‚ he showed that as the ether boiled it absorbed heat from its surroundings and began to cool. Cullen’s milestone was no less than the world’s first demonstration of artificial refrigeration.   Yet despite Cullen’s remarkable achievement‚ his invention lacked immediate practical applications. It would not be until the nineteenth century that his pioneering feat would be reconfigured and put to use in the production of commercial refrigerators.    The Modern Compressor Refrigerator A 1950s Kelvinator‚ a popular mass-produced commercial compression refrigerator‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The birth of mechanical refrigeration revolutionized the preservation of perishable food. Yet the first efforts at modern refrigerator design were costly‚ cumbersome‚ and limited to the middle classes. Oliver Evans’s vapor-compression refrigerator (1805) laid the foundations for companies such as General Electric‚ Kelvinator‚ and Electrolux to put the compression refrigerator into mass production. By the 1920s compression refrigerators had become widely available and affordable.    Problematically‚ these early models relied on toxic gases such as Ammonia‚ Methyl Chloride‚ and Sulfur Dioxide as refrigerants. Gradually‚ an increasing number of accidents led to efforts to discover less dangerous methods of refrigeration. The answer came in the late 1920s when a team of scientists backed by three American Corporations‚ General Motors‚ Du Point‚ and Kinetic Chemicals‚ discovered the utility of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerators.    These new refrigerants were collectively marketed as Freon. Within a few years‚ Freon became the standard refrigerator until 1993‚ when CFCs were identified as “super” greenhouse gases and progressively phased out.    Einstein’s Failed Intervention Clarified and annotated version of original Einstein Refrigerator patent drawing with colors showing phases‚ Source: Wikimedia Common   Before the discovery of Freon‚ two seemingly unlikely physicists came up with another solution.  While Albert Einstein is better known for his groundbreaking work in theoretical physics‚ he also extended his expertise to the world of commercial refrigeration. In 1926‚ Einstein and his doctoral student Leo Szilard read in a newspaper that an entire family in Berlin had died from the toxic fumes emitted from their faulty refrigerator seal– they decided that the issue was prone-to-failure mechanized compressors.   Drawing upon their cutting-edge work on electromagnetism and thermodynamics‚ Einstein and Szilard devised a fridge that eliminated the need for a compressor. The Einstein-Szilard design was an absorption refrigerator that worked by creating a closed loop of evaporation‚ absorption‚ and condensation – without the need for moving mechanical parts. However‚ despite the ingenuity of the design‚ it failed to achieve commercial success. The advent of the Great Depression and the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany‚ coupled with the development of Freon in the USA thwarted their plans.

  On Christmas Day in the year 800 CE‚ Pope Leo III quietly crossed the floor of St. Peter’s Basilica while his congregation knelt in prayer. Leo approached the kneeling King of the Franks &; Lombards‚ normally a towering figure of more than six feet. As the king rose the Pope placed a crown on his head‚ declaring him Emperor of the Romans. The congregation affirmed this and chanted “life and victory” to their emperor. Later‚ Charlemagne would deny he knew what was to happen and that he ever wanted it to. However‚ with this acclamation‚ the 324 year interregnum of the western imperial title was ended and new life was breathed into the Roman legacy in western Europe. But who was Charlemagne&;#63; And how did he come to reestablish a title once thought lost to history&;#63;   Who Was Charlemagne&;#63; The Franks &; the Romans The baptism of King Clovis I of the Franks in Reims‚ by Fran&;ccedil;ois-Louis Dejuinne‚ 1786-1844‚ via wikimedia commons   In the dying days of the Western Roman Empire a federation of Germanic peoples‚ known as the Franks‚ living around the lower Rhine moved to settle in the Roman provinces of Gaul. These Franks had been known to the Romans for nearly two centuries and had likely coalesced and crystallised from smaller tribal groups in the face of the Roman superstate. Though they had fought with and raided Roman territory‚ by the late 5th century the Frankish King‚ Childeric I‚ was in the employ of the Roman authorities as a federated ally‚ commanding the Roman forces in northern Gaul. As the central administration in Italy lost its grip over the provinces‚ the Frankish Kings came into conflict with other Roman field commanders such as Aegidius‚ who had rebelled against the Italian leadership.   The respective sons of Childeric and Aegidius‚ Clovis and Syagrius‚ faced each other at the Battle of Soissons in 486 CE. The Franks won and established control over northern Gaul. By his death in 511 CE‚ King Clovis I had extended his kingdom to encompass nearly all of Gaul‚ reaching through Aquitaine to the Pyrenees. The kings that followed Clovis were known as the Merovingians‚ named for the semi-mythical Meroveus‚ an ancestor of Clovis and Childeric. Their line would rule for nearly two and a half centuries‚ but would be characterized by disunity and infighting thanks to the system of partible inheritance. By the end of their dynasty‚ the kings would be puppets for the Mayors of their palaces in the three main regions of their domains: Austrasia‚ Neustria‚ and Burgundy.   The Merovingians &; Carolingians Battle of Poitiers‚ by Charles de Steuben‚ 1837‚ via Wikimedia Commons   One of the more powerful Mayors of the Palace of Austrasia was Charlemagne’s grandfather‚ Charles Martel. He was so influential over the Merovingian king and Frankish aristocracy that he was able to secure the Mayorship of Neustria‚ stack the nobility of Burgundy with his loyal supporters‚ and reconquer the Duchy of Aquitaine. Famously he defeated an advancing Muslim army at the Battle of Tours in 732 CE‚ stemming the tide of the Umayyad expansion after their takeover of the Iberian peninsula. This victory put Charles in such a position that when the Merovingian king Theuderic IV died in 737 CE‚ he ruled the Frankish empire without appointing a new king. On his death in 741 CE two of his three sons‚ Carloman and Pepin (excluding their half-brother Grifo)‚ divided the Frankish realms between them‚ roughly as Austrasia and Neustria.   Carloman and Pepin cooperated well together‚ deciding to reappoint a Merovingian to the throne in 743 CE‚ Childeric III. They continued to rule the Frankish empire as Mayors of the Palace in their respective regions‚ assisting each other militarily and politically‚ flexing Frankish power abroad‚ and supporting the Catholic faith. In 747 CE‚ Carloman voluntarily withdrew from public life‚ answering the call of monasticism. His son‚ Drogo‚ was dominated by Pepin and eventually forced to become a monk as well‚ while his uncle ruled all of Francia.   By 751 CE‚ Pepin no longer saw any need to maintain the veneer of legitimacy afforded by the Merovingian kings. He took the kingship for himself following a series of letters between himself and the Pope that confirmed the Papacy supported his decision. The Bishop of Rome was likely happy to keep the most powerful ruler in the west on his side as he was navigating between the Byzantine empire and the Lombard kings in Italy.   Lombards‚ Greeks‚ &; Romans  Byzantine and Lombard holdings in the Italian peninsula in the late 6th century‚ 2011‚ via Britannica   Since the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century the eternal city had fallen from grace. First‚ they had been ruled by a succession of Gothic kings before the armies of the Eastern Emperor Justinian had recaptured the city (537 CE). Northern Italy had then become a warzone between Goths and Byzantine Greeks for decades until the Lombards swept in (568 CE) and established a kingdom and two duchies‚ surrounding the strip of land between Rome and Ravenna.   Successive popes were able to seek support from the Byzantine Exarchate in Ravenna‚ the Byzantine holdings in southern Italy and Sicily while pitting the Lombard kings and dukes against each other. This way they were able to maintain their independence while also taking over most of the functions of government for the former capital of the world. However‚ by the late 8th century‚ this situation was becoming ever more difficult to maintain.   Pepin &; the Popes The Iron Crown of the Lombards‚ via medieval.eu   Though he had already agreed to Pepin’s kingship‚ in 753 CE‚ Pope Stephen II fled Italy due to the growing power of the Lombard King‚ Aistulf. He sought refuge with Pepin and while there officially anointed him as king‚ as well as his two sons Carolus and Carloman as his heirs. He also officially declared that the Papacy would support no Frankish king who did not descend from Pepin. This was a pillar of legitimacy never held by the Merovingians‚ divine approval. In return‚ however‚ Pepin was to support the Pope against the expansionist Lombards.   Resultantly‚ in 755 CE‚ Pepin marched into Italy‚ sweeping aside Lombard forces and granting the Papacy control of the lands specified in the fabricated Donation of Constantine‚ roughly the strip between Rome and Ravenna. Though Pepin had to return the following year to quell a Lombard uprising‚ the ties between the Papacy and the Franks had been established.   Carolus &; Carloman Frankish kingdom divided between Carolus (Charlemagne) and Carloman‚ Auguste Longnon: Atlas historique de la France depuis C&;eacute;sar jusqu’&;agrave; nos jours‚ 1907‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Pepin continued to rule as King of the Franks until his death in 768 CE. Like their father‚ young Carolus and Carloman had to begin their rule by sharing the Frankish domains. Though each of their holdings were contiguous‚ Carolus held a long belt of land stretching from the Pyrenees up along the Atlantic coast and pushing over the Rhine into western Germany. Carloman meanwhile held most of Aquitaine‚ Burgundy‚ and Provence‚ with access to Italy and the Mediterranean sea.   Though the brothers cooperated in putting down a revolt in Aquitaine‚ they remained suspicious of one another. Their mother‚ who favoured Carolus‚ had arranged for his marriage (770 CE) to the daughter of the Lombard King Desiderius. This created an alliance between Carolus and the Lombards that encircled Carloman.   This marriage would not last as Carolus would seek to assert his independence and divorce Desiderata in less than a year‚ choosing his own bride instead. This upset his mother and angered the King of the Lombards but it pleased the Pope who was happy to see the alliance broken. Not long after this‚ Carloman died. His widow fled with their children into the arms of Desiderius in the Lombard capital‚ Pavia‚ who was more than happy to provoke Carolus. Meanwhile‚ the nobles of Carloman’s territories swiftly transferred their allegiance to Carolus who now controlled all the Frankish kingdom. These events had also set the scene for the first phase of his sole rule‚ a hostile Lombard kingdom and a friendlier Papacy in Rome.   The Lombards &; Saxons  Demolition of the Irminsul shrine‚ fresco at the Gothic Aachen Rathaus‚ photo by Howi‚ 2015‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Like before‚ the Papacy and the city of Rome were coming under increasing pressure from the Lombards. King Desiderius had been working his way down from Ravenna‚ taking city after city on his way towards Rome. Pope Hadrian I implored Carolus to march to his aid and in 773 CE‚ he did. Carolus rallied the feudal Frankish armies‚ and utilizing both cavalry and infantry‚ marched over the Alps into Italy.   The Frankish host harassed the Lombards and besieged them in their capital. Pavia finally surrendered in the spring of 774 CE and Carolus had himself crowned with the iron crown of the Lombards‚ exiling Desiderius and his son. Now as King of both the Franks and the Lombards‚ Carolus also subjugated the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto (776 CE) and Benevento (787 CE). He was now the effective ruler of two former prefectures of the Western Roman Empire‚ Italy and Gaul‚ and the ally and defender of the Catholic Church in Rome‚ whose lands he also returned.   Before he had set out for his Italian campaigns Carolus had also led a column against the heathen Saxons. While the Franks had converted to Catholicism under Clovis I‚ their Germanic brethren the Saxons had remained pagans. This demonic worship angered Carolus who‚ inspired by Constantine the Great‚ increasingly sought to style himself as a Christian ruler. In 772-773 CE he marched into the dark Saxon forests‚ forcing conversions and razing tribal villages. He tore down a sacred pagan shrine‚ the Irminsul‚ a pillar-like tree trunk erected in open ground. These were the brutal tactics he would return to after returning from his victory over the Lombards.   Expansion and Consolidation Paladin Roland at the Battle at the Roncevaux Pass‚ by Jean Fouquet‚ 15th century‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Carolus remained a very active ruler after his subjugation of the Lombards‚ emancipation of the Papacy‚ and war against the Saxons. He returned to consolidate his power in his existing realms which he then began to expand. He made his son‚ Louis the Pious‚ king of Aquitaine (781 CE)‚ a notoriously rebellious province‚ while continuing to increase his influence in Gascony and the Basque regions. This brought him into contact with the Muslim rulers of the Iberian peninsula who sought an alliance with Carolus in their own civil war against the Umayyads of Cordoba.   Hoping to expand Christendom‚ and his own influence‚ across the Pyrenees‚ Carolus marched a large army with contingents from across his empire‚ into Al-Andalus in 778 CE to fight the Saracens. This campaign is now most famous for a defeat suffered by Carolus’s armies at the hands of the Basques on their withdrawal — the Battle of Roncevaux Pass.   His attempted Christianization of Saxony led to further uprisings which he crushed harshly. Carolus continued his expansion eastward into Germany with an annexation of Bavaria and campaigns against the Avars and Slavs of central and eastern Europe. These campaigns continued to enrich his kingdoms and enhance his legitimacy and prestige. Throughout the last decades of the 8th century‚ Carolus cemented his position as the most powerful man in Western Europe and a leading force in Christendom. He maintained relationships with English kings‚ Muslim emirs‚ and of course‚ the Papacy in Rome. It would be his connection with Rome that would ensure the next step in his ascent to greatness.   Emperor of the Romans  The Coronation of Charlemagne‚ by Friedrich Kaulbach 1903‚ via Wikimedia Commons   Like in 753 CE it was a fleeing Pope that brought the Frankish King into Italian politics. Pope Leo III was elected to the Holy See in 795 CE‚ despite having many enemies in the Roman clergy. In 799 CE these enemies maimed Leo and imprisoned him. Leo escaped the city and fled to Paderborn to seek assistance from the King of the Franks and Lombards. Carolus also received accusations from Leo’s enemies of perjury and adultery and was unsure of how to decide the Pope’s fate.   He was advised by Alcuin of York that he was unable to cast judgment on the Bishop of Rome so instead Carolus marched on the eternal city‚ reinstated the Pope‚ and called a church synod to decide his fate. Leo was able to make an oath of compurgation to prove his innocence. Nobody knows the minutiae of what Leo and Carolus discussed at Paderborn or whether an agreement was made or not‚ but what happened next was clearly orchestrated by at least one party‚ if not both.   Portrait of Charlemagne‚ by Albrecht Durer‚ 1512‚ via Textile Research Center‚ Leiden   On Christmas day 800 CE‚ Carolus knelt during mass in St. Peter’s in Rome and Pope Leo made his way towards him. As the King of the Franks arose‚ the Pope crowned him and the congregation acclaimed him Emperor of the Romans and wished him life and victory. Henceforth he would be Carolus Magnus‚ Charles the Great‚ or Charlemagne.   Charlemagne insisted that had he known the Pope’s intentions he would never have attended mass that Christmas. This may have been a declaration of modesty‚ but more likely  it was an indicator of Charlemagne’s annoyance at the Pope’s belief that he had the right to invest such authority in him‚ when all his existing legitimacy had come through conquest or dynastic inheritance. Charlemagne made sure to break this precedent by crowning his son as emperor himself in 813 CE‚ to demonstrate that his authority was not beholden to the Bishop of Rome.   Who Was Charlemagne&;#63; The Creator of the Holy Roman Empire Napoleon Bonaparte in Aachen‚ by Henri-Paul Motte 1804‚ via Wikimedia Commons   The crowning of Charlemagne in 800 CE was the pinnacle of his career. It also created a polity that would last through the Middle Ages until its dissolution in 1806 at the hands of Napoleon‚ himself a huge admirer of Charlemagne. The Holy Roman Empire established under Charlemagne would gradually disassemble under his sons and grandsons but be revived again by Otto the Great in 962 CE. For much of its existence it was to be known as simply the empire or the German empire due to its centrality in European affairs and its locality in the German regions. But‚ it was to claim the legitimate succession of the Caesars of antiquity with its Emperor being the secular authority of Christendom. It would see innumerable transformations‚ revivals and evolutions in its 1000 year existence‚ all of which sprang from the achievements of its first Emperor‚ Charlemagne.

  On the one hand‚ music is the art of arranging sounds into combinations of pitch and rhythm. In more technical terms music comprises a series of organized pitches experienced over time. However‚ beyond such abstract theoretical principles‚ music helps us to express and recognize human emotions – it provides a mirror to history‚ and ourselves. When we engage in music we exist in the present. Music is a constant across all human societies that at the same time‚ stands as a universal language capable of uniting all of humanity.   The Sound of Music The hills of the Austrian Alps‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Julie Andrews once claimed that the hills were alive with the sound of music. And sure enough‚ from the rolling landscapes of Austria to the global oceans; arid deserts and tropical rainforests alike give rise to soundscapes of rhythm and pitch. Waves crash‚ winds howl‚ and sands shift – the rainforest air is heavy with noise.    Animals craft their own compositions. The vast diversity of life on earth deploys a splendid array of tones and timbres‚ blending percussive beats‚ complex melodies‚ and vocalizations. From the Congolese Bonobo to the majestic Humpback whale‚ the animal kingdom is alive with musical expression. Birdsong has graced the skies for millennia.    Likewise‚ the human connection to music has been present across cultures since time immemorial. Musical ability is thought to have emerged in humans before the acquisition of language – music is embedded in our evolutionary history.    The Mathematical Foundations of Music Pythagoras‚ an ancient Greek philosopher‚ by an unknown Artist‚ 1655‚ from Thomas Stanley‚ The history of philosophy. Source: East Tennessee University   Music possesses mathematical foundations. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras – best known for his mathematical theorem – was also curious about music. He sought to unravel the truth of why some pitches sound good together and others don’t. He proposed an experiment. Taking a monochord (one long string tuned at a set pitch) he plucked it‚ to establish a fundamental pitch. Next‚ he cut the length of the string in half and plucked it again – to his amazement‚ at a 2:1 ratio‚ he obtained the same pitch (known as an octave).    Continuing his experiment‚ Pythagoras repeated the process at intervals of one-third (3:2 ratio‚ also known as a “perfect fifth”) and one-fourth‚ one-fifth‚ and one-sixth of the strings length‚ consistently discovering consonant pitches. Pythagoras’ observations unveiled a mathematical relationship between pitches‚ providing a natural explanation for the consonance of harmonious tones‚ and the dissonance of those that clash. His revelations underpin the foundational principles of Western music.    Pitch A single frequency sound wave at 10Hz displayed on an analog oscilloscope‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the context of modern Western music‚ discussions about melody‚ harmony‚ chords‚ and scales‚ fundamentally revolve around the concept of pitch. Simply put‚ pitch in music refers to the perception that a note can sound either “higher” or “lower” than another note. When a sound is made‚ such as plucking a guitar string‚ a soundwave is produced – an oscillating wave of energy comprised of molecules. Any given soundwave has a “frequency‚” denoting the speed at which the wave completes its cycle.    Mathematically pitch is quantified by the number of times a soundwave can repeat in one second‚ measured in Hertz (Hz). In this context‚ pitch relates to how the human ear hears and understands a given frequency. A high frequency translates to a high pitch‚ and a low frequency results in a low pitch.    Rhythm The cornerstone of electronic dance music and hip-hop during the 1980s‚ the Roland TR-808 Rhythm Composer drum machine‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   At the heart of all rhythm is the “beat” or “pulse.” Our initial rhythmic encounter occurs with the experience of our mother’s heartbeat in the womb. Spontaneous rhythmic patterns emerge from within our bodies as we breathe and our hearts maintain rhythm.    The speed of a rhythm is known as the tempo. Just like our own pulse‚ the tempo of our heartbeat is often influenced by our emotional state: of calm‚ excitement‚ or fear. In music‚ the tempo plays a crucial role in shaping the emotional impact of a composition.    Music can rely on an implicit pulse‚ utilizing the spaces between phrases to evoke feelings of serenity‚ as observed in classical music. The pulse can also be expressed openly as a repetitive electronic “groove” as seen in dance music‚ or more commonly‚ an acoustic drumbeat. In whatever form rhythmic movements make us want to tap our feet‚ nod our heads‚ and dance.    Music is a Universal Language An unknown violinist plays in the village of Krivorivnya‚ Western Ukraine‚ 2014‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Music serves as a powerful means to convey a diverse range of human emotions. It can evoke nostalgia. Rhythms can enthuse us with energy. Music can distract: it enables us to experience euphoria and well-being on the one hand and diminish our perception of pain on the other.    Throughout history‚ music has been heard as expressive of emotions. It expresses beauty‚ human character‚ tension‚ and social conditions. In music theory‚ major chords sound happy‚ confident‚ and bright‚ while minor chords convey sadness. Major seventh chords voice romance while diminished chords articulate tension.    In music‚ we depart the realm of social conditioning and conscious thought‚ to enter a state of presence in the moment. Music not only enables us to recognize and connect with our emotions but also provides a universal means of communicating and expressing them.