Colonial exploitation subjected Central American and Caribbean states to centuries of oppression. The banana republic period is defined by multinational corporations extracting a resource from these nations for their own profit. This occurs at the expense of the country’s citizens‚ who often labor under unfair conditions. Analysis of this era reveals the justifications behind American imperialism and the intersection between big business and the armed forces.   1. The Term “Banana Republic” is Actually Offensive Pictorial Map of the American Continent Following the Pan American Highway‚ ca. 1930. Source: JSTOR‚ New York   “Banana Republic” is an outdated term that originated from colonizing forces. It was first used by O. Henry‚ an American author of short stories‚ in 1901. This label referred to countries whose economy was reliant on the exportation of a single crop‚ the production and distribution of which was often controlled by outside corporations. Politically‚ they were ruled by a corrupt authoritarian government beholden to the interests of international companies and a small circle of wealthy elite. Extreme inequality marred their development. Foreign industries owned much of their land and infrastructure. Citizens had few opportunities to attain political autonomy or wealth of their own.   In the early 1900s‚ the term applied sinister undertones to the Caribbean and Central American countries it labeled. It underscored the agency and identity of people by characterizing them as a powerless‚ monolithic body useful only for their labor. This often manifested in racist imagery of Indigenous and African diaspora communities subservient to white business owners. The caricature downplayed the countries’ industriousness and their economies‚ which were diversified beyond products sought by international merchants.   The name gave credence to American interests to continue exploiting foreign people and lands through a vicious system of control to reap material wealth. Its existence allowed leaders in business‚ government‚ and the military to reduce independent countries to a single characteristic output to be harvested. This attitude spawned justifications for imperialist expansion and control‚ as well as military interventions. Mass media and educational material distributed tropes assigned to the banana republic label among the American public. Despite the origins of the phrase‚ it is important to note that the term is used here not as a reduction of the nations it describes but as an illustration of the unfortunate outcomes suffered under colonialism.   2. Other Countries Participated As Well French Commentary on the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885‚ by L’Illustration‚ 1885. Source: Historia/Shutterstock   World powers continued to hold and expand imperial possessions elsewhere. Britain exerted control over India‚ Australia‚ and Hong Kong. The Berlin Conference of 1884 saw fourteen Western countries draft claims over Africa with no native representation present. They drew borders arbitrarily with no respect for existing inhabitants‚ then conquered and exploited their holdings similar to other colonial territories.   In the Americas‚ the United States does not bear all the blame for the banana republic system. Honduras was a British colony‚ and its authorities played a role in the dominance of the fruit companies at the expense of their constituents. British timber companies practiced a system of debt trapping‚ where workers were kept laboring to pay off debt that was passed down through generations.   British officials in the 1900s looked to develop Honduras and saw cooperation with the United Fruit Company as the most efficient method. They allowed the company to operate in the colony and advocated for its continued expansion. Integration came at the expense of harming the local small growers and agricultural industry while leaving many residents vulnerable to exploitation by United Fruit.   3. Samuel Zemurray Made United Fruit Powerful Samuel Zemurray‚ Los Angeles‚ 1934‚ by Los Angeles Times‚ 1934. Source: University of California Los Angeles   Samuel Zemurray was a Russian immigrant who started a business in 1899‚ buying cheap ripe bananas and quickly selling them to vendors before they spoiled. United Fruit awarded him a contract the following year in Mobile‚ Alabama to continue with inventory brought from their ships. Zemurray collaborated with Ashbell Hubbard‚ who had the largest contract in Mobile‚ to purchase two steamships of their own. In 1910‚ they created a plantation in Honduras and founded the Cuyamel Fruit Company.   Zemurray wished to avoid existing agreements between the US and Honduras on customs taxes. He paid mercenaries to overthrow the Honduran government and return former president Manuel Bonilla to power. After the success of this operation‚ Bonilla’s administration granted Zemurray a large plot of land and freedom from Honduran taxes for twenty-five years. Cuyamel Fruit Company expanded enough to be a significant competitor to United Fruit by 1929. The following year‚ United Fruit acquired Cuyamel in a deal that made Zemurray the largest stockholder.   United Fruit stock declined in the 1930s until Zemurray staged a “coup” within the company itself. He was elected president in 1938‚ and under his leadership‚ the company returned to its position as the chief provider of bananas. Ownership of sixty-one ships made United Fruit’s Great White Fleet the largest private fleet in the world. The corporation continued to make deals with Central American countries and preserved their system of plantation labor.   4. Cuba Was the Most Alluring Prize Sugar Mills: Views from the Most Important Sugar Refineries in Cuba‚ by D. Jose Miguel and D. Pedro L. Fernandez‚ 1857. Source: British Library   Thomas Jefferson wrote to James Monroe in 1823‚ claiming‚ “I candidly confess‚ I have ever looked on Cuba as the most interesting addition which could ever be made to our system of states.”   Jefferson cited the island’s strategic location‚ which offered control of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. He correctly predicted in the letter that America could not have control over Cuba without war.   After the Spanish-American War‚ Cuba exercised relative autonomy until 1902’s Platt Amendment to its Constitution. This act‚ passed by the US Congress‚ authorized the United States to construct a base at Guantanamo Bay and preserve Cuba’s independence with military force. It also restricted Cuba’s ability to enter treaties with other nations and validated all existing laws issued during American occupation.   Nearly every Caribbean island produced sugar‚ but Cuba was the largest and had exclusive trade agreements with the US. American speculators purchased land in Cuba to secure their piece in the lucrative business. The Treaty of Relations dissolved the Platt Amendment in 1934‚ and Cuba became one of America’s strongest allies. Cuba continued intensive domestic production of sugar‚ and the US instituted tariffs and quotas to protect its own cultivation in the 1950s. A 1956 quota on sugar imported from Cuba may have been a contributing factor to the Cuban Revolution in 1959.   After Fidel Castro became the Cuban head of state‚ US-Cuban relations were hostile for decades. Castro nationalized the island’s industries and redistributed the land. Much of both were American-owned. President Eisenhower and the CIA started a plot to invade Cuba‚ overthrow Castro‚ and install a president friendly to the US. The United Fruit Company contributed two ships in the resulting 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion‚ which failed and became an American embarrassment.   5. The Panama Canal Was an Exercise in Imperialism Held Up The Wrong Man‚ by W.A. Rodgers‚ 1903. Source: Library of Congress   France first saw an opportunity to construct a channel linking the Atlantic and Pacific through a narrow isthmus in what was then Colombia. Ferdinand de Lesseps‚ engineer of the Suez Canal‚ supervised the ill-fated effort. Tropical diseases claimed 20‚000 lives‚ and the project ran out of funds in 1889. In 1902‚ US Congress authorized the canal’s completion and negotiated a treaty with a Colombian diplomat. However‚ Colombia’s legislature blocked this agreement.   President Theodore Roosevelt responded by sending naval vessels to support separatists‚ and Panama declared its independence in 1903. A new agreement granted the US a ten-mile-wide stretch of territory to complete the canal. In return‚ Panama received ten million dollars and an annual payment of 250‚000 dollars. The US completed the canal in 1914‚ allowing ships to navigate between the two oceans and cutting six to ten months off the voyage.   Panamanians felt that the US was not conducting the deal equitably. They argued America was purposefully misinterpreting the treaty to exclude Panama from exercising its rights over the Canal Zone. US military presence and discrimination against Panamanian laborers heightened tensions between the two countries. Riots erupted in 1964‚ leading to the deaths of twenty people.   The issue became a major talking point in Panama’s elections and contributed to a period of internal strife. Gradually‚ the US granted concessions to Panama‚ which restored an uneasy peace. It was not until 1999 that control of the canal was fully ceded to Panama. The canal is now operated under permanent neutrality‚ yet America still provides aid to Panama because of its strategic importance.   6. Racial Discrimination Mirrored American Practices Bringing Fruit Out To Loading Platform‚ Puerto Castilla‚ Honduras‚ Circa 1920. Source: Harvard University‚ Cambridge   The exploitation of material wealth and labor coincided with race-based hierarchies enforced and encouraged by corporations. Relations between the often white company representatives and often Indigenous or Afro-Caribbean workforce were similar to those in the US.   United Fruit transplanted racial policies from the US across their territory. They relegated employees of African descent to manual labor regardless of qualifications. These workers were paid far less and sometimes were paid in currency only valid at company stores.   Tensions existed before the presence of multinational corporations. Guatemala passed laws in the 1870s designed to keep its indigenous population toiling on farmland in a debt trap system similar to sharecropping in the Southern US. They expanded upon this practice in the 1880s when an American firm constructing a railroad brought in African-American laborers. Despite promises of better treatment‚ workers were misled about pay and labor conditions and were targets of violence from white overseers. Black immigrants were also targets of an unfair law enforcement system already used to oppress native people in favor of Latinos.   The United Fruit Company fostered divisions among its workforce as a means of control. Black and Latino employees were intentionally segregated in their living quarters‚ tasks‚ and pay. This practice of encouraging ethnic tensions meant organized resistance against the company was difficult as the employees found difficulty uniting.   7. Covert Interventions in Banana Republics Continued Gloriosa Victoria by Diego Rivera‚ 1954. Source: Penn State University   Overthrowing governments was not always practiced through overt war. The Central Intelligence Agency‚ or CIA‚ was founded in 1947 to conduct intelligence related to national security. The CIA sometimes acted to protect American commerce abroad. Guatemala elected Jacobo Arbenz as president in 1951. Arbenz vowed to seize United Fruit Company land to give to poor residents. United Fruit spent three years and an equivalent of five million dollars to lobby the American government to intervene. Believing that Arbenz’s actions were communist‚ the CIA conducted a coup‚ which led to decades of tyrannical martial law for the people of Guatemala.   A Thing Well Begun Is Half Done by Victor Gillam‚ 1899. Source: Cornell University‚ Ithaca   Regime changes spread beyond Central America and the Caribbean under the guise of preventing the spread of communism. In 1973‚ the US supported the ousting of democratically elected Chilean president Salvador Allende. A military junta governed the country until they were succeeded by the dictator Augusto Pinochet‚ who ruled through terror until 1990. Between 1947 and 1989‚ America attempted seventy-two foreign regime changes‚ with sixty-six covert efforts and only six overt ones. Whether to guard against communism or to protect commercial interests‚ interventions under the auspices of maintaining stability may destabilize targeted nations instead.

  The fur trade that occupied a great area of the future United States and Canada during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries allowed European-based explorers and businessmen to amass great wealth and spread their influence. However‚ the Indigenous people who enabled much of this prosperity were led to conflict to maintain its success. Specifically‚ the Algonquin people and Iroquois‚ or Haudenosaunee‚ Confederacy would be pulled into an all-out war to preserve their regional economic power and alliances with the European forces.   A Booming Trade in the New World The Fur Traders by Elisabeth Lochrie. Source: US Postal Service via the Smithsonian National Postal Museum   The first fur trade in North America occurred in Canada between Native Americans and European fishermen visiting the area in pursuit of cod. The Indigenous people‚ who had been trapping‚ hunting‚ and utilizing furs for centuries‚ traded small pelts for items that the fishermen had‚ often metal-based‚ such as pots or knives. In the late 16th century‚ this trade would go from random to commercial when beaver-felt top hats became all the rage in continental Europe. Beaver top hats were the height of men’s fashion from this time well until the 19th century. A beaver hat was a sign of class and wealth‚ and the toppers were often valued as family heirlooms passed from father to son.   A beaver felt top hat. Source: Malla Reddy Medical College for Women   Not only was beaver considered fashionable‚ but beaver felt was practical as well. Beaver fur was especially suitable for the practice of creating felt‚ as the fur has little barbs at the ends that interlock when pressed. This creates a solid felt fabric that is water-repellent‚ excellent for the rainy climate of places like London. There were also many superstitions about beavers and their fur circulating in Europe at this time‚ which probably aided in the popularity of these hats. Some believed that wearing a beaver hat made one more intelligent or that a deaf person could become hearing by wearing one.   The flag of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Source: Royal Museums Greenwich   The French would become the first to capitalize on the fur trade‚ spreading throughout Canada and down into the future United States. In 1670‚ the English granted a charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company‚ which also became operational in Canada and later the United States. While Europeans were building forts and setting up shipping stations‚ Native Americans were and would continue to be the actual primary fur suppliers for both the French and the British. Two key groups were the Algonquin tribe‚ originally located in what would become Western Quebec and Ontario‚ and the Iroquois Confederacy‚ or the Haudenosaunee‚ originally located in parts of New York and the future middle colonies.   A Key Distinction: Algonquin vs. Algonquian Professional Indigenous dancer Jerry Hunter in the dress of an Algonquin warrior at a performance. Source: Masq’alors&;#33;   It is important to note that the Algonquin are not the same as the similarly spelled Algonquian people‚ though the Haudenosaunee would have conflicts with both over the centuries. While Algonquian refers to a group of different tribes that share linguistic and cultural traditions (including the Cree and Mi’kmaq)‚ the Algonquin people belong to a cultural group known as the Anishinaabeg‚ shared with the Ojibwe and other tribes.   The Algonquin traditionally lived in birch bark structures called wigwams and occupied a patrilineal‚ or father-oriented‚ society. Their distinct language gave way to many historical and modern place names‚ particularly in Canada‚ including Quebec (kebec meaning “place where the river narrows” in Algonquin).   The Algonquin began interacting with the French in about 1603 and allied with them as the fur trade picked up. Also included in the alliance were the Innu (also known by the French term Montagnais or the Naskapi for the northern clans) and the Huron (also known as the Wendat or Wyandot).   The Haudenosaunee The flag of the Haudenosaunee. Source: Syracuse University   The term “Iroquois‚” like Algonquian‚ also refers to a language family that a group of tribes has in common. This historical group of five‚ which became six in 1772‚ includes the Mohawk‚ Cayuga‚ Oneida‚ Onondaga‚ Seneca‚ and Tuscarora tribes. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy‚ meaning “People of the Longhouse‚” is considered one of the oldest and longest-lasting democracies in the world‚ inspiring Benjamin Franklin and other Founding Fathers as they formed the young United States.   Unlike their Algonquin contemporaries‚ the Haudenosaunee operated in a matrilineal‚ or mother-oriented‚ society. In the seventeenth century‚ the Confederacy began trading with the British and Dutch merchants that were infiltrating the New York area‚ and soon‚ their local economy became interdependent with the fur trade as demand for beaver rose. The Confederacy was exceptionally powerful among local tribes‚ and the influx of wealth from the fur trade and the addition of firearms to their military power as a result of the trade was a boon to their strength.   Conflict &; Consequences A North American Beaver‚ Castor canadensis. Source: Bella Vista Property Owners Association   When European colonists and fur traders began arriving‚ it is estimated that 60 to 200 million beavers populated North America. However‚ as the demand for their fur rose‚ their numbers were soon depleted‚ particularly in the north and east. Colonists routinely raided one another’s forts and outposts to steal furs‚ and conflicts erupted regarding settlement and use of territory.   These tensions were even higher among the Native American tribes‚ whose economy had become warped by the influx of the fur trade and now depended on it. As beaver became depleted in the Haudenosaunee territory‚ the tribes realized they needed to look elsewhere for furs or else face severe economic catastrophe. This realization was fueled by the British‚ who encouraged this movement‚ providing weapons in pursuit of the lucrative furs.   The Beaver Wars were also known as the Iroquois-Franco Wars. Source: Native Veterans   The first battle of the series of conflicts brought on by the fur trade took place at Lake Champlain on July 22‚ 1609‚ initiated by Samuel de Champlain himself. Local tribes had asked for his support in fighting encroaching Haudenosaunee warriors who were in the area hunting furs. Champlain and a small group of French soldiers joined Algonquin‚ Huron‚ and Montagnais warriors against the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. This was the first time many of the Indigenous people of the area had seen European firearms in use. The short battle ended when de Champlain fired his musket and killed three Haudenosaunees. The remaining Haudenosaunee fled‚ unsure of how to fight back against this new technology.   Portrait of Samuel de Champlain. Source: History Hustle   In the 1620s‚ the Mohawk‚ part of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy‚ began working to influence trade with the Dutch‚ who occupied an area known as New Netherland‚ today New York. They began raiding the Mohican people‚ who‚ before this point‚ controlled the Dutch fur trade. By the mid-1620s‚ the Mohicans had been pushed eastward‚ and the Mohawk exercised a full monopoly over the Dutch fur trade. This would prove useful as the series of battles went on‚ as the Dutch would be one of their main providers of firearms and other supplies.   A map of New Netherland by Niclaes Visscher II‚ 1684. Source: World History Encyclopedia   Beginning in the 1640s‚ the Haudenosaunee began moving north and west through the Great Lakes area in pursuit of beaver furs that were no longer available in their traditional homelands. These areas were occupied by other groups already‚ resulting in conflict.   The Confederacy destroyed some groups completely‚ such as the Erie. Other groups‚ particularly the alliance of the Algonquin and the Huron‚ were able to level more resistance.   White settlements were also involved in this fighting‚ as fur outposts were often in critical locations or contained valuable cargo. This off-and-on fighting resulted in the Algonquin and their allies being pushed from their ancestral lands and forced to move west. Of course‚ these western lands were already occupied‚ and in some cases‚ fleeing refugees found more warfare waiting for them.   The French became involved in the fighting as their suppliers were ravaged by the Haudenosaunee. The fighting disrupted the French fur trade‚ and the movement of furs to Quebec slowed‚ giving the British a financial edge. (Although the Dutch were also a presence in North America‚ the main competition in the trade lay between the two larger powers).   Canadian Fur Traders‚ 1777 illustration. Source: Wikiwand   As has been the case at many points in history‚ the French and British were bitter enemies during this period. Contributions from both parties to their Indigenous allies stoked the battles between the Algonquin and the Haudenosaunee‚ whether these contributions were in the form of alliances‚ firearms‚ or other supplies. The majority of the Algonquin were pushed further north permanently by the conclusion of the conflicts‚ often referred to as “the Beaver Wars.”   The Beaver Wars would officially conclude in 1701 with a treaty known as the Grande Paix de Montr&;eacute;al‚ or the Great Peace of Montreal. Negotiations for this agreement took place between 39 nations that sent 1‚300 delegates to Montreal to discuss terms. Included in the terms was the right for the French to continue expanding‚ for the Haudenosaunee to remain neutral in the case of future war between the English and French‚ and it allowed the Haudenosaunee the ability to trade freely with whom they wished. Though what had already been done to the ravaged Algonquin peoples could not be undone‚ this treaty actually would bring relative peace to the war-torn region until the outbreak of the French and Indian War.   Similar Endings A tanned beaver pelt. Source: American Leatherworks   Regardless of how the Great Beaver Wars ended‚ with the Haudenosaunee keeping the lands they had conquered‚ both the Algonquin and Haudenosaunee people suffered similar fates. By the end of the nineteenth century‚ the Algonquin found that their territory was being encroached on again‚ this time by settlers who were primarily involved in the lumber trade. Many members of the tribe were removed to reservations at this time. The fur trade fizzled out in the late eighteenth century and became obsolete as the world moved into the nineteenth century and fashions changed.   As this happened in conjunction with the Revolutionary War‚ which caused internal conflict and white expansion‚ the once-mighty Haudenosaunee began to see their power fade. After the American Revolution‚ the tribes of the Haudenosaunee‚ too‚ would find themselves relegated to reservations like their former enemies.   Both the Algonquin and many members of the Haudenosaunee fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. Today‚ members of the Algonquin tribe and the six tribes of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy number in the thousands and still live on reservations and elsewhere in the United States and Canada.   Additional Ramifications Smallpox was just one disease introduced to the Indigenous people by colonists. Source: Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian   War was not the only consequence that the fur trade brought to the Indigenous nations of the United States in Canada. The fur trade essentially reshaped life in these lands. The items that Native Americans traded furs for changed how they lived their lives. In some cases‚ these items made their lives more efficient and convenient‚ such as access to cooking materials and metal fishing hooks. However‚ other items had both positive and negative consequences. Access to firearms made hunting easier‚ but it also changed local warfare. Fighting styles changed‚ and killing was simply easier. Alcohol‚ an unfamiliar substance‚ began infiltrating Indigenous societies and‚ if overused‚ could have destructive outcomes on individuals‚ families‚ and communities. Once-isolated American Indians came into contact with some European pathogens for the first time‚ and many lives were lost to diseases like smallpox and influenza.   Although their work had made the fur trade a success and led to the wealth of many Europeans and North American settlers‚ the Indigenous people ultimately lost out‚ confined to reservations within a few decades of the fur boom. As is often the case‚ colonization and war had lasting effects on the future of these people and their lands.

  The late Middle Ages‚ despite many advances‚ still lay in the grips of feudalism. The age-old practice of only nobles wielding power and their eldest son inheriting began to fade by the 12th century. That power shift slid over to kings and popes‚ but not without struggle. Many cities and merchant groups around the Baltic and North Sea were stuck somewhere in the middle‚ vulnerable to both forces.    Both groups realized working together was better and began to combine their efforts for trade‚ politics‚ and stabilizing trade routes. By doing so‚ the Hanseatic League became a dominant power‚ able to negotiate with kings and nobles. Their political and economic clout lasted several centuries.   The Membership Lubeck Castle Source: Pixabay   The member cities or settlements stretched from London to Novgorod at the Hanseatic League’s height. German cities like Lubeck were considered the League’s hub. Other members were Hamburg‚ Bremen‚ Visby‚ Bruges‚ Riga‚ Cologne‚ and Stockholm. Two cities‚ London and Novgorod‚ had Kontors (trading posts) that expanded trade to new markets. Traders created two hundred settlements eventually.   Though named a league‚ the Hanseatic League more closely resembled a confederation. Members could pursue their interests yet collaborate for mutual benefit. Common causes like diplomacy‚ economic control‚ or war were decided by consensus. As a body‚ the League‚ for example‚ negotiated with European rulers to protect their trade routes or merchant privileges.   Meetings and Roles 14th Century Map Hanseatic League Source: Wikimedia Commons   Members or their representatives met in Lubeck at the Hansetag or Hanseatic Diet. Decisions could be made without the member cities giving up their independence. The Hansetag never met regularly‚ only as needed or in an emergency‚ but lacked any enforcing power on members.   The League did not shy away from war if needed. In the 1360s Danish-Hanseatic War‚ the Danish King occupied Visby in Denmark‚ a major Hanseatic city controlling the profitable herring trade. The Hanseatic forces‚ led by the city of Lubeck’s forces‚ unsuccessfully attacked Visby. This led to infighting among the League cities‚ almost causing a collapse – some Hanseatic cities continued trading with Denmark.   After more fighting‚ the League formed a coalition with Sweden‚ Prussia‚ and Dutch cities and went on the offensive. Led by the Hanseatic ships‚ they sacked Copenhagen and blockaded Denmark and its ally Norway. Soon‚ Denmark asked for terms. This war‚ like others‚ showed the Hanseatic League’s power when its members cooperated. It also exposed the bad-not all members fought.   Setup and Settlements Rostock Hanseatic Buildings Source: picryl.com   The Hanseatic League cleverly used tangible reminders in important cities: trading posts. Known as Kontors‚ these were built in non-Hanseatic cities. Besides being strategically placed trading posts‚ Kontors were political and cultural centers. One person headed the Kontors‚ a legal representative to that host city to expand the League’s power and keep trade flowing. Often‚ that trade could help local communities even as far as England’s countryside.    The League trade representatives often enjoyed legal protections‚ like extraterritoriality-diplomatic immunity from local laws. Such legality could be useful as needed. London and Novgorod Kontors fell under extraterritoriality; akin to embassies today‚ the area is considered that country’s sovereign territory. Traders settled in such cities‚ too‚ so Novgorod Russians rubbed shoulders with Germans from Lubeck‚ for example.   Kontors brought a city into the Hanseatic League’s massive network of trade routes. Often‚ cities had goods that could not be produced quickly elsewhere. Cologne produced steel and weapons‚ and London (and other British cities) traded wool. The League’s connections made trading safer and more accessible.   Peasant Kermis‚ by David Teniers‚ 1665. Source Rijksmuseum   Plying these trade routes came the cog‚ a newer ship capable of carrying more cargo than Viking-type ships. The Hanseatic League used cogs extensively‚ their white and red flag a common sight in many northern European ports.   A Quiet Ending and Legacy Cog sailing ship Source: About History   The Hanseatic League lasted nearly four centuries‚ making member cities wealthy. Members operated semi-independently from each other‚ all serving different markets and locations. But all operated for the mutual good. The League faced challenges from expanding kingdoms‚ pirates‚ and trading rivals. But it survived through diplomacy‚ war‚ and economic power.    The Hanseatic League petered out as new trade routes (the Americas)‚ war‚ and changing times. Kingdoms arose like Sweden and Germany‚ which seized Hanseatic land‚ restricted trade‚ or limited free cities. By 1769‚ only a few core cities remained‚ making the League irrelevant. The most significant Hanseatic legacy still in use today is its approach towards international law and diplomacy. This legacy developed into diplomacy for trade agreements‚ setting up common trade regulations‚ and more.

  The famously private and austere monarch kept a diary throughout most of her life. Her first ever diary was given to her by her mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld when she was only thirteen. Its first line read: This book‚ Mamma gave me‚ that I might write the journal of my journey to Wales in it. She would continue to document her extraordinary life until her death in 1901. Many of these pages contain secrets to her private life and clues about her eccentric personality that were often completely hidden from the public.   Queen Victoria’s Secret Sensuality  An Excerpt from Queen Victoria’s Diary. Source: Royal Collection Trust‚ London   Despite upholding the Victorian stereotype of being extremely grumpy‚ reserved‚ and ill-tempered‚ Queen Victoria’s diaries show her good humor‚ her intelligence‚ and her complexity. But mostly‚ the diaries show just how in love she was with her husband Albert. Even after many rounds of editing from her daughter and various Priests close to the Queen‚ her sensuality and sexual nature can be clearly perceived in her writing. On the evening of their wedding‚ Victoria wrote: We both went to bed; to lie by his side and in his arms‚ and on his dear bosom‚ and be called by names of tenderness‚ I have never heard used to me before — was bliss beyond belief&;#33; Oh&;#33;   While the Victorian Era is not known for being particularly expressive about sex‚ it is clear that Victoria and Albert enjoyed a sexually fulfilling relationship‚ parenting nine children. Victoria is famous for being a reluctant mother and for not caring too much for babies‚ however‚ the couple never once stopped procreating. After the birth of her ninth child‚ the Royal Doctor reportedly warned Victoria to stop having children to which the monarch allegedly replied‚ What&;#63; No more fun in bed&;#63;   Portrait of the royal family in 1846‚ painted by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. From left: Prince Alfred (boys commonly wore dresses in toddlerhood)‚ Prince Albert Edward‚ Queen Victoria‚ Prince Albert‚ Princess Alice‚ Princess Helena‚ and Princess Victoria. Source: Royal Collection Trust   The tenderness that she expressed when she spoke about Albert remained hidden within her diaries and between the couple until after her death. She described him as having beautiful blue eyes‚ an exquisite nose‚ and a pretty mouth with delicate mustachios and slight but very slight whiskers. She also wrote about his beautiful figure‚ broad shoulders‚ and his fine waist. Her admiration of Albert’s physicality continues to be seen throughout volumes of her diaries. She once wrote: My dear Albert came in today from the rain; he looked so handsome in his white cashmere britches‚ with nothing on underneath.   Albert and Victoria supposedly had a button that could lock their door directly from their bed installed in their bedroom at Buckingham Palace. They also gave each other rather risque gifts‚ including an erotic painting from artist Franz Xaver Winterhalter which depicts a group of bare-breasted women preparing to bathe. Albert‚ at one point‚ decided the perfect present for his Queen was to commission a marble statue of himself portrayed as a sensual Greek warrior. Later on‚ Victoria thought that it was too sexual and moved it to a private residence.   When Albert died‚ Victoria was just forty-two years old and while it was normal for wives to enter into public mourning for a year‚ Victoria remained dressed in mourning black for the rest of her life. In the first four years after his death‚ she resigned from public duties and was not seen in public or leaving Buckingham Palace at all. Her dedication to mourning the loss of her life partner started the trend for mourning periods and clothing as we know it now.   The Erasure of Abdul  Queen Victoria and Abdul Karim in Buckingham Palace. Source: The New York Times   Perhaps the most scandalous and controversial aspect of Queen Victoria’s private life was her relationship with Indian attendant Abdul Karim. Abdul had been sent over to England ahead of the Coronation of Victoria after the monarch had voiced her interest in learning about the Indian Territories. He was chosen to hand a gift to Victoria during proceedings‚ where the two apparently connected and formed a bond that would last for over a decade until her death in 1901. At Victoria’s summer home on the Isle of Wight‚ shortly after the Golden Jubilee‚ Karim impressed the monarch by making her chicken curry with dal and pilau.  She wrote about her fondness of Abdul.   The scandal that their relationship caused is not publicly known and can most accurately be felt when we look at how seriously the monarch’s family took the task of erasing all knowledge of him from the history books. Victoria’s daughter Beatrice was in charge of editing and censoring the extended diaries of Queen Victoria and removed any mention of Abdul’s name. There are just a few clues left in her writing that allude to Abdul’s presence in Buckingham Palace and his close proximity to the Queen. For example‚ Victoria wrote about learning a few words of Hindustani in her diaries. Every letter the pair exchanged was burned‚ alongside all the papers from their language lessons together.   Abdul Karim in a Royal robe with medals and a knife‚ 1894. Source: British Library‚ London   Abdul was deported back to India and evicted from the properties that Victoria purchased for him. Art historian Carolly Erickson said in her book on Queen Victoria titled Her Little Majesty: For a dark-skinned Indian to be put very nearly on a level with the queen’s white servants was all but intolerable‚ for him to eat at the same table with them‚ to share in their daily lives was viewed as an outrage.   Beyond the interracial aspect of the relationship that offended the members of the Royal House‚ the jealousy that surrounded the pair was no doubt due in part to the lavish favorability Abdul enjoyed. He was allowed to carry swords and he was given many medals by the Monarch. His wife and family were flown over and given homes in each of the Queens Estates. There was also the land bought for them back in their native India.   Victoria’s assistant private secretary Fritz Ponsonby quoted her as having said to the Royal House that there was racial prejudice and jealousy of the poor Munshi. Over one hundred years passed after her death until an eagle-eyed art historian noticed some discrepancies and clues in paintings and gifts left by the Monarch. A full investigation ensued and the incredible story of Victoria and Abdul was unearthed‚ a testament to the extremely modern temperament of Queen Victoria.   Queen Victoria’s Famous Wedding Dress  The wedding dress of Queen Victoria. Source: Town and Country Magazine   The famously grouchy Monarch’s first request upon becoming Queen just months after her eighteenth birthday was to be left totally alone for one hour. There are many accounts of her dry humor and propensity for laughing‚ however‚ there are equal accounts of her haughtiness and rigidity. It is not surprising that one such as herself‚ born and raised to be Queen‚ should have a more balanced character given her upbringing in The Kensington Manner of intense routine‚ protocol‚ and endless education.   Queen Victoria and Albert at the Wedding of Princess Victoria wearing white. Source: Wikipedia   A great example of this is the wedding dress of Queen Victoria. While it is normal for us to see brides in white‚ Queen Victoria was the first woman to popularize this trend. The first mention of white in her diaries comes in her explanation of the wedding day proceedings. She wrote about wearing a white satin dress‚ with a deep flounce of Honiton lace‚ a Turkish diamond necklace and earrings‚ and Albert’s sapphire branch. Many of these customs from the brooch to the gifts‚ to the orange blossom head wreath‚ were initiated on this day so that the public could imitate Queen Victoria and her tasteful ceremony. Guests were instructed not to wear white so as not to distract anyone from her dress‚ thus starting the trend for white bridal dresses and non-white wedding guest attire.   Watercolor by Queen Victoria after the wedding of her daughter Princess Victoria‚ 1858. Source: Royal Collection Trust‚ London   The unusual change of the bridal dress into the evening dress is also documented in the intimate diaries of the Queen. Victoria wrote about putting on a white silk gown‚ trimmed with swan’s down‚ and a bonnet with orange flowers. Albert also changed his clothes. The day would mark the beginning of a flurry of new wedding trends that persist to this day.   Queen Victoria Smiling in Portrait‚ 1886. Source: Royal Collection Trust‚ London   All lace cuts and templates for both dresses and both veils used in the wedding wardrobe were destroyed upon request of the Queen so that no one could ever replicate the exact details of her dress‚ making it a one-in-a-million wedding dress. The trend for white was solidified when Victoria and Albert’s daughter Victoria got married in a similar gown when she was seventeen years old. Queen Victoria was well renowned for her watercolors and those of her daughter’s wedding are some of her most touching ones.

  The Second Battle of Bull Run‚ also known as the Battle of Second Manassas‚ saw the emergence of Confederate General Robert E. Lee as the South’s most prominent general. After its defeat in the Battle of Shiloh‚ the Confederacy realized that only threatening the North directly could help end the war. Lee needed a victory to show he was ready to go on the offensive&;#33;   Victory Goes to the Confederacy Confederate generals Robert E. Lee (left) and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson (right) had a renowned partnership exemplified by a victory at Second Manasses. Source: Army War College   The Second Battle of Bull Run‚ also known as the Battle of Second Manassas‚ was a resounding victory for the Confederacy in the Eastern Theater of the US Civil War. A massive Union army‚ the Army of Virginia‚ had been created by President Abraham Lincoln in June 1862 to march on the Confederate capital of Richmond‚ Virginia‚ and hopefully end the rebellion directly. The new opponent of this new Union army‚ commanded by General John Pope‚ was Confederate General Robert E. Lee. Lee sought to outmaneuver Pope’s larger but cautious and slow-moving army and capture its supply lines.   Between August 28 and August 30‚ 1862‚ Pope’s army was outmaneuvered by Confederate forces under Lee and his close compatriot‚ General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson. A combination of superior Confederate tactics and inaccurate Union intelligence gave the South a victory against the larger Army of Virginia. On August 30‚ a massed attack under Confederate General James Longstreet‚ consisting of five divisions‚ decisively won the battle. Pope was forced to retreat and was replaced in his command‚ later being sent to the Western Theater.   Timeline of the Second Battle of Bull Run A map showing the Union and Confederate movements during the first day of battle on August 28‚ 1862. Source: American Battlefield Trust   In July of 1862‚ the Confederacy was in a precarious position on the Eastern Front between the Confederate capital of Richmond‚ Virginia and the Union capital of Washington DC. A new Union army‚ the Army of Virginia‚ had been created at the end of June to assist the existing Army of the Potomac.   On July 12‚ General John Pope‚ commander of the new army‚ began moving south toward Richmond. The next day‚ Robert E. Lee began shifting his forces to the west‚ planning a flanking maneuver of both the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Virginia.   After a period of calm‚ Lee ordered his units to begin moving on August 13.   However‚ Lee’s plans were thwarted on August 18‚ when Union cavalry raided the headquarters of Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart and discovered battle plans&;#33;   After a successful revenge raid by Confederate cavalry on August 23‚ Lee felt confident that the time was ripe to strike.   Pope also felt emboldened due to the arrival of reinforcements and so chose to attack on August 25.   The next day‚ however‚ Confederate troops under “Stonewall” Jackson completed a grueling 55-hour march and successfully emerged behind Pope’s lines.   The battle commenced on August 28‚ with Pope struggling with misinformation and poor communication.   As a result‚ Union attacks on August 29 were uncoordinated and lacked potency.   In contrast‚ effective Confederate communication on August 30 allowed positions to be reinforced against a large Union attack and then respond with perhaps the single largest single attack during a Civil War battle: 25‚000 men under Confederate General James Longstreet struck at approximately 4:00 PM‚ leading Pope to decide to withdraw.   What Caused the Second Battle of Bull Run&;#63; Union General George McClelland‚ seen here with his wife‚ was seen as hesitant and weak by Confederate General Robert E. Lee‚ sparking Lee’s offensive. Source: University of Virginia   Both the Union and the Confederacy felt the need to attack during the summer of 1862. The Union wanted to end the rebellion swiftly‚ having grown weary of more than a year of warfare. The Confederacy was suffering from Union army infiltration into its territory‚ seizing supplies from the countryside under Pope. Under General George McClellan’s Army of the Potomac‚ Union forces had been less harsh toward the Southern population. John Pope‚ however‚ wanted to pressure the South to end its resistance with his new‚ more aggressive Army of Virginia. Simultaneously‚ the South also “upgraded” to a more aggressive general – Robert E. Lee replaced Joseph E. Johnston as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia.   The more aggressive Union and Confederate forces‚ both stationed near Richmond‚ Virginia‚ skirmished with each other in multiple engagements. Pope thought he had the opportunity to defeat a sizable Confederate army under “Stonewall” Jackson and sought revenge after Jackson had seized and destroyed one of his supply depots. Ultimately‚ the Second Battle of Bull Run was a natural result of two major armies being “upgraded” to a higher level of aggression after a year of relative stalemate in the war.   Why Was the Second Battle of Bull Run Significant&;#63; Re-enactors depicting a skirmish from the Battle of Antietam‚ which came only weeks after the Second Battle of Bull Run. Source: Minnesota Public Radio (MPR)   The Second Battle of Bull Run was significant for a few reasons. First‚ it signaled that there would be no quick end to the war. Despite Union successes in the Western Theater and relatively continuous seizure of Confederate territory out west‚ Bull Run revealed that the South could strongly maintain its territory around its capital city of Richmond‚ Virginia. A smashing victory and quick drive to Richmond was extremely unlikely after the Second Battle of Bull Run‚ especially given that Lee and his generals had defeated a considerably larger Union force.   Secondly‚ the battle began the powerful legacy of Robert E. Lee. During and after the Civil War‚ Lee had one of the most vaunted reputations as a battlefield commander. Lee’s prowess as a general may have prolonged the war by intimidating his Union counterparts into being more cautious when facing his Army of Northern Virginia after Second Manassas. Indeed‚ the Army of the Potomac saw relatively rapid turnover in command after it failed to capitalize on victories over the Army of Northern Virginia in the Battle of Antietam and afterward. Finally‚ the dissolution of Pope’s short-lived Army of Virginia after its defeat at Bull Run resulted in the simplified showdown between the Union’s Army of the Potomac and the Confederacy’s Army of Northern Virginia for the remainder of the war.   5 Facts About the Second Battle of Bull Run A map showing the location of Union (blue) and Confederate (red) armies during the Second Battle of Bull Run on August 30‚ 1862. Source: American Battlefield Trust   1. Casualties Casualties at the Second Battle of Bull Run totaled almost 22‚000‚ with the Union suffering about twice as many as the Confederacy. Approximately 1‚750 Union soldiers were confirmed killed‚ versus only 1‚100 Confederates. The biggest difference between the two sides came in terms of captured: some four thousand Union troops were listed as missing or captured‚ compared to less than one hundred Confederate soldiers.   2. Commanders Union forces were led by General John Pope. Pope had enjoyed rapid promotions early in the Civil War and had only been an Army captain in February 1861 when he first escorted new president Abraham Lincoln around Washington DC. After the Civil War began‚ Pope won accolades in the Western Theater for quick victories in Missouri. In June 1862‚ he was recalled to Washington DC and given command of the new Army of Virginia – which he allegedly did not want. After his defeat at the Second Battle of Bull Run‚ Pope was transferred to the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota to pacify the Native American population.   Confederate forces were led by Robert E. Lee‚ who had also taken command in June 1862. Despite his later reputation as a battlefield phenom‚ Lee had spent the first year of the war in coastal defense after the Battle of Fort Sumter and as an advisor in Richmond. Lee’s impressive victory at Second Bull Run guaranteed that he would remain the commander of the Army of Northern Virginia for the remainder of the war. After the war‚ Lee would be prominently remembered by both sides of the conflict‚ while John Pope is largely forgotten due to his brief tenure and dissolved army.   3. Number of Forces Involved Up to 70‚000 Union troops in the Army of Virginia and Army of the Potomac faced off against some 55‚000 Confederate troops from the Army of Northern Virginia. Due to the large numbers of troops available‚ both sides received reinforcements before and during battle. However‚ Lee’s ability to defeat a much larger army revealed that the North could no longer count on simply marching into Richmond based on size alone.   4. Visiting Bull Run Battlefield Today Today‚ the battlefield can be seen as part of the Manassas National Battlefield Park. The park is near Bull Run‚ which is a census-designated spot in Prince William County‚ Virginia (hence the name “Second Battle of Bull Run”). Due to the two battles fought at the location‚ there are plenty of historic sites at Battlefield Park. Most visitors stay in Manassas‚ Virginia‚ which has many history-related sites and activities for tourists. As a large town of over 40‚000 residents‚ Manassas has many places for visitors to stay overnight.   5. Trivia: The Dapper Dressing Feud Shortly before the Second Battle of Bull Run‚ Union cavalry raiders captured J.E.B. Stuart’s famous plumed hat. This was a stinging humiliation for the dashing Stuart‚ who was a new hero of the Confederacy thanks to his own cavalry raids. Days later‚ Stuart got his revenge when his own cavalry raid captured Union General John Pope’s dress uniform from his tent. Allegedly‚ the two generals wished to bargain for their respective dapper clothing back‚ but the negotiations went nowhere before Stuart and Pope were both transferred elsewhere.   Aftermath of Second Manassas: Invasion of the North Union General John Pope (above) had replaced George McClellan but was himself replaced by George Meade after his loss at Second Manassas. Source: Virginia Humanities   The victory at Second Bull Run was a major morale boost for the South and a humiliating loss for the North. The Army of Virginia was disbanded‚ and John Pope was transferred to Minnesota to fight the Sioux. Emboldened by his victory‚ Robert E. Lee chose to strike while the proverbial iron was still hot: he chose to invade Maryland. The goal was to relieve pressure on Richmond and simultaneously apply political pressure on the Union to seek an armistice. Theoretically‚ citizens in the North would urge a quick end to the war if the war could come to them. Until the Battle of Antietam‚ the Civil War had been fought entirely in the South.   Fortunately for the Union‚ Lee’s invasion of Maryland was unsuccessful. In fact‚ it resulted in the North increasing harsh policies toward the rebellion: President Abraham Lincoln presented the Emancipation Proclamation‚ which would free all enslaved people in territories still in rebellion against the Union on January 1‚ 1863. Thus‚ instead of alleviating the harsh conditions imposed by Pope’s Army of Virginia on occupied Southern territory‚ Lee’s invasion guaranteed that those territories would forever lose their slave labor. Lincoln’s focus on Southern slavery in his proclamation also helped scuttle any chance of British or French recognition of the Confederacy – both nations had voluntarily given up slavery years before.

  The Iroquois Confederacy was one of the strongest alliances of its time. Militarily‚ politically‚ and economically‚ the group of five‚ later six‚ nations‚ dominated their homelands. Their unique society not only influenced their own lives but served as an example to the European settlers who were making North America their home. Not only did the Constitution of the Confederacy inspire the American Founding Fathers as they wrote their own‚ but their society became a key model for the women’s rights movement in the United States in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.   Who Were the Iroquois&;#63; The Haudenosaunee had a collective government where men gathered for discourse‚ but women controlled their presence there. Source: History Hustle   The Iroquois Confederacy‚ who call themselves the Haudenosaunee‚ was a group of five nations considered by many historians to be the oldest participatory democracy in the world. Originating in the area that is now New York State‚ the Haudenosaunee existed for centuries before the arrival of European settlers on the American continent. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy comprised the Onondaga‚ Oneida‚ Mohawk‚ Cayuga‚ and Seneca tribes. The Tuscarora joined the alliance in 1722. While the tribes are distinctly different‚ they do share many cultural similarities‚ including language. In fact‚ the name “Iroquois” refers to the language family that is spoken by these tribes and others.   The Haudenosaunee have played a large role in the Euro-centric history of the United States‚ possessing a central role in the fur trade that economically developed the early colonies‚ participating in the French and Indian War‚ and splitting to side with both the British and the Patriots during the American Revolution. From the seventeenth to mid-eighteenth century‚ they were incredibly powerful‚ but the schisms that developed during the Revolution would weaken them significantly. Regardless‚ the Haudenosaunee persevered‚ and modern figures place Haudenosaunee numbers at over 200‚000 in the United States and Canada.   Women Leading the Way A young Haudenosaunee woman. Source: Pinterest   For at least 1‚000 years‚ Haudenosaunee women have had a voice in political affairs within their nation in North America. While there are male chiefs within the six tribes‚ they are selected (and removed from office if necessary) by the women of the tribe.   The Haudenosaunee are a matrilineal society‚ meaning they are governed by women. Heritage passes through the women in the family‚ and living arrangements are centered around a wife’s family. The Haudenosaunee society was divided into clans‚ each headed by a clan mother. The clan mother was responsible for making decisions relevant to her clan‚ including ensuring that everyone was fed and cared for appropriately.   Clan mothers chose men to serve on Confederacy-wide councils‚ where the six nations would meet to discuss matters that concerned the alliance as a whole and make group decisions when necessary. They also had final say over the Confederacy’s decisions‚ with general votes of the populace taken as well. In the seventeenth century‚ this power extended to decisions about military action‚ as Haudenosaunee women staged the first known feminist rebellion in North America.   Savagery to Civilization by Joseph Keppler‚ 1914. Source: New York Heritage   In this movement‚ they used their powers over other aspects of Haudenosaunee life to gain veto power over military decisions in order to promote peace. The men who were appointed to hold office within the Confederacy had to follow strict moral guidelines and make good choices for their people. They could not have committed a crime‚ been a warrior (the goal was to preserve the peace)‚ or ever abused a woman. Abuse and rape were virtually unheard of‚ as women were treated as sacred‚ a mutual creator of life along with the Earth. In the rare instance it did happen‚ the offender would be punished severely by banishment or even death. Unlike white women‚ Haudenosaunee women had control over their own property and belongings.   A Different World Society required women to play specific roles in nineteenth-century America. Source: Classroom   In the nineteenth century‚ white women in the United States were living under polar opposite conditions to Haudenosaunee women. In the eyes of the law‚ married women were essentially dead: they had no rights‚ could not own property‚ and did not even have control over their bodies‚ as men had the legal right to rape and beat their wives‚ providing they didn’t leave permanent injury.   If women worked‚ which few married ones did‚ her wages went to her husband‚ and she could not own property. Mothers did not even have control over their children. In fact‚ if a husband were to pass away‚ he could leave his unborn or living children to someone besides his wife in his will&;#33; Single women were not much better off‚ having no say in family decisions and no right to vote‚ serve on a jury‚ or even write their own will.   Alice Fletcher in 1899 with an interpreter (left) and Chief Joseph (center) of the Nez Perce‚ photo by Jane Gay. Source: Inland 360   Alice Fletcher‚ a women’s rights activist who studied Native American culture‚ observed these stark differences while visiting an Indigenous woman in the late nineteenth century. She later retold the story at an 1888 meeting of the International Council of Women‚ bringing the inspiring example of women’s abilities within Indigenous nations to life for many American women for the first time.   She had observed the Indigenous woman selling a horse and asked her how her husband would feel about her doing so. The woman laughed‚ not understanding what Fletcher meant. When Fletcher explained how white men had control of their wife’s property‚ the Indigenous woman and her friends were shocked. In her worldview‚ the horse was hers‚ and she had the right to sell it without consulting her husband. Fletcher recalled receiving similar responses from other Native women when she explained white women’s social status among men. Hearing about this freedom gave Fletcher’s fellow suffragists the inspiration they needed to continue fighting for their rights and a goal to focus on.   Animating Activists Matilda Gage‚ 1871. Source: Buffalo-Toronto Public Media   Matilda Gage and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were two other notable suffragists who took up the example of the Haudenosaunee women to campaign for their cause of rights for all women. Local to the area where the Haudenosaunee lived‚ both women spent time with Haudenosaunee women and spent a great deal of time researching their lifestyle.   Gage wrote a series of articles for the New York Evening Post in which she educated the public about the Haudenosaunee legal and social structure‚ which split power between men and women in a way that she felt was admirable and desirable for the rest of the nation to adopt. In addition to supporting women’s rights‚ Gage was a supporter of Native American rights and sovereignty. In 1893‚ she was honorarily inducted into the Wolf Clan of the Mohawk Nation and given the name Ka-ron-ien-ha-wi‚ meaning “Sky Carrier.” This admitted her to the Council of Matrons‚ where she was able to vote in tribal matters. Ironically‚ this happened the same year that in the United States‚ she went on trial for illegally voting in a school election.   Bloomers. Source: Recollections   Stanton’s cousin‚ Gerrit Smith‚ had a daughter‚ also named Elizabeth‚ who was inspired by local Haudenosaunee women she had become friends with. Stanton and Smith would often dine with these Oneida women at Smith’s house. Elizabeth Smith became a fashion icon when she challenged tradition by ditching her corset and the multitude of skirts that women were required to wear at the time. Instead‚ she began the trend of wearing loose-fitting “bloomers‚” which were very similar to the leggings and long shirts worn by her Oneida friends.   Challenging Tradition Many traditional Christian teachings use Eve’s original sin as merit for the subjugation of women. Source: JW.org   As more women began examining the longstanding success of Haudenosaunee culture and women‚ it left them reflecting on their status in their own culture. A great deal of European and colonial culture in relation to femininity originated from Christianity. Religion traced the subjugation of women back to Eve and original sin in the Garden of Eden and used it as an excuse to keep women under the thumb of a masculine society.   Traditional Christianity held marriage as a covenant with God‚ meaning that women had no right to break their vows‚ even for their own safety. Old Testament edicts ordered women under their husband’s servility and gave them legal obligations to adhere to. Women were seen as weaker in mind and body and in need of a man to guide them. However‚ after observing Haudenosaunee women thriving for centuries in the wilds of America‚ white American women began to question whether or not they really needed to be under the protection and authority of men. Crimes against women were virtually unheard of on Native American reservations as they lived in equality with men.   Success&;#63; President Calvin Coolidge with unknown Indigenous representatives outside the White House in January 1924. Source: The Nation   Eventually‚ the causes the suffragists fought for would start to come to fruition. Women would get the right to vote with the passage of the 19th Amendment‚ ratified in August of 1920. While this amendment to The Constitution legally guarantees American women the right to vote‚ it does not necessarily grant all American women equality in the eyes of men‚ the government‚ and the world.   African American women (and men) would continue to struggle to vote‚ particularly in some areas of the country. The Indigenous women who inspired this movement would not even be eligible to vote in some parts of the country for decades after the amendment passed. Native Americans‚ technically the country’s first citizens‚ would not even be granted citizenship in the United States until 1924‚ with the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. It would take another forty years for each individual state to catch up with equal voting rights for all.

  Much of Alexander Gardner’s work has historically been overshadowed and even ascribed to his former employer‚ Matthew Brady. But Gardner may have left more significant contributions to America’s history and collective memory. Gardner photographed the horrors of war‚ exposing the public to its nature. His relationship with Abraham Lincoln enhanced the President’s achievements in life and legacy in death. Gardner later documented the American West undergoing a transitionary period filled with uncertainty.   Alexander Gardner’s Life Before Photography Portrait of Robert Owen by W.H. Brooke. Source: National Museum of Wales‚ Cardiff   Alexander Gardner was born in Paisley‚ Scotland‚ on October 21‚ 1821. His family moved to Glasgow when Alexander was still young‚ and his father died soon thereafter. Alexander proved to be an eager learner‚ demonstrating proficiency in astronomy‚ chemistry‚ and photography. Despite his studiousness‚ he dropped out of school at fourteen and worked as an apprentice jeweler for seven years.   Gardner admired the New Harmony community in Indiana‚ a socialist-inspired commune founded by Robert Owen and Fanny Wright. Owen was a Welsh Socialist who began the cooperative movement‚ envisioning self-sufficient communes where workers collectively owned the operations in which they labored. In 1850‚ Alexander and his brother James traveled to the United States to purchase land in Iowa for a collective society of their own.   After the siblings secured their property‚ Alexander returned home to solicit donations and members. He appropriated funds to purchase the Glasgow Sentinel‚ a weekly newspaper. Gardner’s political editorials galvanized the publication‚ which became Glasgow’s second most circulated paper within three months.   How Gardner Became a Photographer M.B. Brady at the World’s Fair in London‚ ca. 1853. Source: National Portrait Gallery‚ Smithsonian Institution‚ Washington DC   Gardner visited London’s Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in 1851. This was the first time many visitors saw a photograph in person. For Alexander‚ it was his first introduction to Mathew Brady’s renowned images‚ which ignited his passion for the emerging art form. He developed a strong interest in photography‚ reviewing exhibits in the Glasgow Sentinel and taking pictures of his own. By 1852‚ Gardner stepped back from the paper‚ pursuing his newfound obsession instead.   In 1856‚ Gardner immigrated to America with his mother‚ his wife Margaret‚ and their two children. They first went to the Iowa commune‚ soon discovering that some residents had tuberculosis‚ and Alexander’s sister‚ Jesse‚ perished from the affliction. Gardner then moved to New York‚ where he met his idol‚ Brady‚ for whom he began working.   Portrait of Alexander Gardner‚ ca. 1863. Source: National Portrait Gallery‚ Smithsonian Institution‚ Washington DC   Brady admired Gardner’s work with the challenging wet-plate negative technique. This process required a glass plate covered in collodion to be treated in silver nitrate. When ready‚ it was immediately placed into a camera to take the picture while the plate was still wet. Practitioners needed access to chemicals‚ a portable darkroom‚ and other equipment to capture and process the image. Yet it created more detailed pictures with an exposure time of only a few seconds‚ gradually eclipsing the older‚ slower daguerreotype method.   During Gardner’s early years of employment‚ he may have invented “imperial prints‚” large 21-by-17-inch photographs magnified with coloring by hand. Prominent subjects commissioning their portraits in this style paid between fifty and five hundred dollars. Over time‚ Brady’s eyesight deteriorated‚ and in 1858‚ he selected Gardner to manage his gallery on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC.   Early Photography of the Civil War [Private William B. Haberlin of Battery B‚ Pennsylvania Light Artillery in uniform with shoulder scales and great coat] ca. 1861-1864. Source: Library of Congress Demand for photography boomed when the Civil War broke out as deploying servicemen sought portraits to give to their loved ones. Relatives of a soldier marching to an uncertain fate desired an authentic memento they could cherish. Quick and inexpensive photography‚ such as the wet-plate negative style used by Gardner‚ met the new mass market.   Matthew Brady observed the First Battle of Bull Run and decided to photograph the war itself. Gardner’s connection to Allen Pinkerton‚ director of the intelligence agency that became the Secret Service‚ enabled the proposal of this idea to Abraham Lincoln‚ who agreed.   Brady sent Gardner and several other employees across the country‚ each working with a personal darkroom to process their images quickly. The team meticulously photographed Union camps and the outcome of battles. By November‚ Gardner became an honorary captain on General George McClellan’s staff.   What Photography Meant in the Civil War Antietam‚ Maryland. Field where Sumner’s corps charged. Bodies of Confederate in front of the Dunker church by Alexander Gardner‚ 1862. Source: Library of Congress   Gardner’s captainship provided him the opportunity to document the bloody aftermath of Antietam. Fought on September 19‚ 1862‚ Antietam was the single bloodiest day in American history. Two days later‚ Gardner entered the field and captured some of the most iconic wartime images ever taken. Over the course of two visits‚ he took roughly 120 images of the battlefield. Brady’s New York gallery exhibited over seventy of Gardner’s images.   Through the new medium of photography‚ the American public was first introduced to the carnage of battle. Readers thousands of miles away could notice every gruesome detail in astonishing clarity. The New York Times wrote of Gardner’s work at the New York Exposition: “It is a thunderbolt that will crash into some brain.”   As practitioners of an art form‚ photographers acted as journalists‚ capturing and sharing subjects they chose‚ often with an unspoken message behind them. The North and South used their images for propaganda and for observation of enemy positions to develop wartime strategy.   Gardner and Brady Go Separate Ways Title Page Lithograph of Gardner’s Photographic Sketch Book Of The War by A.R. Ward‚ 1866. Source: Library of Congress   A rift arose between Gardner and his employer. Brady credited all his team’s images as Brady &; Co. As such‚ Gardner received little public recognition for his contributions. Brady was also in debt and perhaps unable to pay his workers. By the end of 1862‚ Gardner left Brady’s studio. He was already an established artist with influential connections in political and military circles. In 1863‚ he began his own enterprise in Washington DC‚ with his brother James and other former Brady photographers.   Gardner traveled with the Army of the Potomac and documented several other important Civil War battles‚ such as Fredericksburg‚ Gettysburg‚ and the siege of Petersburg. He mainly worked alone‚ only collaborating with a team for the massive engagements of Antietam and Gettysburg. Many of his works showcased the scale and violence of the conflict. When not on the battlefield‚ he took portraits of civilians‚ soldiers‚ and politicians in the nation’s capital.   Gardner and his team published a two-volume book entitled Gardner’s Photographic Sketch Book of the War in 1866. It included one hundred photographs and detailed‚ poetic descriptions of each. Eleven photographers contributed to the book‚ and Gardner credited each one. He took only sixteen of the images himself but used his background as an editor to construct the narrative.   Pictures of President Abraham Lincoln [Abraham Lincoln‚ three-quarter length portrait‚ seated and holding his spectacles and a pencil] by Alexander Gardner‚ 1865. Source: Library of Congress Gardner took thirty-eight pictures of Lincoln‚ more than any other photographer‚ as portraits‚ in the field and at both inaugurations. The portraits functioned to promote the president’s national image and reelection campaign. Lincoln visited Gardner’s gallery twice and took an interest in the methodology of camera operation. Gardner’s images of Lincoln‚ captured from 1861 to 1865‚ demonstrate the President’s involvement in military affairs and the stress exerted upon him over the course of the war.   One of Gardner’s works could be the last image taken of the president‚ just five days before his assassination. Gardner also photographed the seven people charged with plotting to kill Lincoln‚ as well as the presidential funeral. He was the only photographer permitted to record the execution of the four conspirators sentenced to death on July 7th‚ 1865.   Gardner’s Life After the War Indian church at Isletta‚ New Mexico‚ on the Rio Grande‚ below Albuquerque‚ 871 miles west of Missouri River by Alexander Gardner‚ ca. 1867. Source: Boston Public Library   Gardner became the photographer of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1867. He met with an expedition party in St. Louis‚ charting the future route of the track‚ and accompanied them from 1867 to 1868. The band ventured through Kansas‚ Colorado‚ New Mexico‚ Arizona‚ and California‚ finishing in San Francisco. He published a series of 127 photos the following year in Across the Continent on the Kansas Pacific Railroad (Route of the 35th Parallel). These images captured the construction of the railroad in Kansas‚ native Indigenous groups‚ and other early images of the American West.   Gardner photographed Native American representatives visiting Washington DC in 1866. The government also hired him to document the 1868 peace conference in Fort Laramie‚ Wyoming. Gardner broke from the railroad expedition to travel by rail to the site. During these sessions‚ Gardner took pictures of members from the Lakota‚ Dakota‚ Northern Cheyenne‚ Crow‚ Sac and Fox‚ Iowa‚ and other tribes.   Gardner did the same with federal political figures‚ such as William T. Sherman. Sherman was a Union general during the Civil War and belonged to the Peace Commission‚ established in 1867‚ to broker treaties with American Indian Plains groups. Gardner published these pictures in another book‚ Scenes of Indian Country. His success won him an appointment as the official photographer of the Office of Indian Affairs in 1872.   Gardner established an insurance company in 1871. He also photographed criminals for the police of Washington DC. He spent his later years aiding charities furnishing relief to widows‚ children‚ and the impoverished. Alexander Gardner passed away on December 10‚ 1882‚ in Washington DC.   Alexander Gardner’s Controversy and Legacy Home of a Rebel Sharpshooter‚ Gettysburg by Alexander Gardner‚ 1863. Source: Museum of Modern Art‚ New York   One Gettysburg photo‚ Home of a Rebel Sharpshooter‚ shows a dead Confederate soldier who seems to be depicted elsewhere in A Sharpshooter’s Last Sleep. Most historians acknowledge the likely possibility that Gardner or a member of his team moved the body for another shot. This deception appears to be the only example of altering a shot across his career. Some consider the absence of corpses in certain terrain shots unusual‚ but these often belong to a series of images taken after the removal of the dead had already begun.   As an artist and editor‚ Gardner made conscious decisions not only in the images he captured but in which ones he published and how. Democracy and the triumph of the working class are prominent themes throughout the book.   Gardner’s body of work holds value not only in advancing the art and science of photography but also in historical memory. His images left a lasting impact on how citizens experience war‚ while the subjects and their portrayal define how the conflict is remembered. Gardner’s pictures of Lincoln helped facilitate Lincoln’s enshrinement as the face of a nation during the conflict and an American hero thereafter. Photographs of the West captured a transition period as expansion brought the Federal government‚ private corporations‚ and citizens of all classes into contact and conflict with Indigenous groups. These images and their creator deserve recognition as foundational elements of mid-1800s America.

  In the aftermath of the US Civil War (1861-65)‚ the victorious Union wanted to reunite the country. Part of doing so meant settling the West‚ or America’s vast interior. To do so‚ it needed to build a railroad through this interior. In building the Transcontinental Railroad‚ which stretched from Council Bluffs‚ Iowa to San Francisco‚ California‚ thousands of workers were needed in California for the Central Pacific Railroad. These low-cost laborers came from China and performed backbreaking labor in the Sierra Nevada mountains. Sadly‚ these workers often met only racism and discrimination‚ which was capped by the infamous Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. For the next sixty years‚ immigration from Asia to the United States was essentially banned.   Setting the Stage: Immigration to the United States An image of the famous Statue of Liberty from 1885‚ which was gifted to the United States by France. Source: Iowa State Historical Society   The debate over immigration into the United States has been highly contentious‚ with periods of spiking tensions. For the first several decades of the nation’s existence‚ from 1781 until the early 1800s‚ the United States encouraged open immigration. During the early days of the republic‚ immigration was encouraged as a way to grow the economy and help the nation expand westward. Under the 1790 Naturalization Act‚ any “free white persons” who had lived in the country for two years would be granted citizenship‚ along with their children‚ if they swore allegiance to the US Constitution.   In 1798‚ the Alien and Sedition Acts increased the length of residency for citizenship to fourteen years. It also allowed the government to deport immigrants who were undesirable. However‚ the law expired after two years‚ and in 1802‚ the government reduced the residency requirement for citizenship down to five years. During the US Civil War‚ the position of commissioner of immigration was added to the Department of the Secretary of State and was intended to encourage immigration. Six years later‚ a new immigration act allowed persons of African descent to be naturalized as US citizens (linked to the 14th and 15th Amendments to the US Constitution).   Setting the Stage: Nativism Rising After the Early 1800s A nativist political cartoon criticizing many immigrants as threatening to American values and competitiveness. Source: National Public Radio (NPR)   Although the nation as a whole supported immigration as a way to develop the economy and expand westward‚ many individuals and groups strongly disliked immigrants who were seen as different or un-American. Nativism emerged in the 1830s and 1840s‚ largely against Roman Catholic immigrants from Ireland. The first substantial wave of non-Protest immigrants was seen by many as an affront to American values. This first wave of nativism peaked in the early 1850s with the creation of the “Know Nothing” political party.   Nativism was influenced by the rapid growth of immigration beginning in the 1840s‚ with critics of immigration highlighting their religious differences to imply that they were dangerous and untrustworthy. Political tensions heightened as Catholics became the majority in some areas‚ resulting in politicians courting their votes and appointing Catholics to some government positions. “Know-Nothings” were also part of the anti-alcohol temperance movement and tried to use Catholic immigrants’ drinking of alcohol as a wedge issue by declaring that they were drunkards who threatened polite society.   The Transcontinental Railroad A photograph of the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869. Source: Linda Hall Library   In the Northeast‚ most Americans knew relatively little about Asia or immigration from that continent. The West‚ largely unsettled‚ seemed inaccessible to all but the most brave (or foolish) adventurers. This changed in the 1860s‚ first with the Homestead Act of 1862‚ which gave away free land to settlers‚ and then with the Transcontinental Railroad. Not only did the railroad promise to make it possible for any civilian to cross the continent‚ from the Northeast to California‚ in relative safety‚ but it also gave economic opportunity to many marginalized groups who were willing to work hard: Mormons and immigrants.   On the West Coast‚ building the railroad from California eastward‚ most of the labor was done by Chinese immigrants. Between 10‚000 and 15‚000 immigrants were recruited to work for the Central Pacific Railroad. After believing that most Irishmen were drunkards‚ contractors switched to focusing on recruiting Chinese workers. The Chinese were also used as leverage to keep other immigrant groups in line and not demand higher wages. Impressed with an initial group of 50 Chinese laborers‚ foreman James Stobridge quickly hired many more. This‚ unfortunately‚ caused tension with white workers‚ who resented new colleagues with different backgrounds.   Chinese Immigration to the West Coast A photograph of Chinese immigrants in California participating in gold mining in 1852. Source: California Migration Museum   Chinese immigration began on the West Coast during the 1840s‚ usually in the form of young men ready to perform manual labor. In the 1850s‚ they worked in the gold mines during the California gold rush. During this decade‚ the first families began arriving from China‚ looking to escape economic troubles back home. They were considered cheap labor‚ especially after the California gold rush dried up. By 1851‚ some 25‚000 Chinese immigrants had made their way to California‚ most discovering quickly that the stories about a gold rush had largely been myths.   Some Chinese men could return home and later bring their families back to the United States‚ but a majority did not. The 1880 census discovered a ratio of about twenty men per one woman from China. Outside of mining and the railroads‚ Chinese laborers also worked in agriculture. Over time‚ cities in California began developing predominantly Chinese neighborhoods‚ known as “Chinatowns.” Here‚ some immigrants could work providing services for other Chinese immigrants. After 1868‚ Chinese immigration to the US increased under the Burlingame-Seward Treaty‚ which allowed American companies to import low-cost Chinese workers.   Conditions Faced by Chinese Immigrants Chinese immigrants working on the Transcontinental Railroad‚ such as those above‚ faced harsh conditions and mistreatment in society. Source: NPR   Working conditions for most immigrants to the United States were rough during the 1800s. The Chinese‚ however‚ suffered even worse from outright racial prejudice and discriminatory pay; Irish workers on the Transcontinental Railroad were paid more and received free boarding. Many employers specifically used Chinese laborers to drive down the wages expected by white workers‚ with those workers frequently taking their anger out on the Chinese instead of the employers. Eventually‚ however‚ white railroad workers learned to work with their Chinese counterparts or face being replaced.   Outside the railroads‚ Chinese immigrants often faced discriminatory laws banning them from working various jobs. Violence was common‚ with perpetrators rarely punished. Chinese workers were robbed with impunity and often shot and killed if they refused to hand over their wealth. Due to racism and fears of tough job competition‚ there was little public interest in defending Chinese immigrant laborers. Many were run out of towns in the West‚ and their belongings and shops were destroyed in anti-Chinese riots. Violence worsened after the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad‚ with whites fearing job competition from thousands of Chinese workers now looking for employment.   Political Pressure for a Ban on Chinese Immigration An 1878 illustration in The San Francisco Illustrated Wasp using racist imagery to criticize Chinese immigrants. Source: Chinese American Museum in Los Angeles‚ California   Local and state laws quickly targeted Chinese immigrants‚ often forcing them to pay fees and abandon their traditional methods of doing things. Government employment‚ and even the use of public schools‚ was banned for the Chinese. Courts typically excluded testimony from Chinese immigrants‚ meaning any legal disputes between Chinese and white residents would almost automatically be decided in favor of the white party. This racism was joined by increasing economic fears in the 1870s as the US economy faltered. No longer needed for railroad labor‚ Chinese immigrants were often scapegoated (blamed unfairly) for falling wages and high unemployment.   In the late 1870s‚ advocates for restricting Chinese immigration began to gain ground in Congress. The Democratic Party‚ prominent in the Western states‚ wanted a full ban on Chinese immigration. Attempts by states like California to impose limits on Chinese immigration had violated the Burlingame-Seward Treaty‚ as did an 1879 attempt by Congress. President Rutherford B. Hayes had been forced to veto Congress’ 1879 bill because it violated the Burlingame treaty‚ so he sent diplomat James Angell to negotiate a new treaty. In 1880‚ the new Angell Treaty finally allowed for long-sought restrictions on immigration from China.   The Chinese Exclusion Act is Passed A headline praising the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act‚ which was signed into law on May 6‚ 1882. Source: Equal Justice Initiative (EJI)   With the Angell Treaty providing the legal justification for limiting Chinese immigration‚ the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882. Notably‚ it was the first law substantially limiting immigration to the country‚ reversing a historic trend of America being a champion of migrants seeking new opportunities and freedoms. Immediately after the passage of the Exclusion Act began attempts to eliminate any “loopholes” used by Chinese immigrants‚ with stricter amendments passed in 1884. The ban was made even stricter in 1888 with the Scott Act‚ which banned re-entry into the United States after visiting China‚ even for long-term US residents.   A newspaper headline heralding the passage of the controversial Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Source: PBS   In 1892‚ the ten-year ban on Chinese immigration was extended again by Congress. Fortunately‚ the US Supreme Court upheld birthright citizenship (allowing those born in the US to automatically be considered American citizens) for Chinese Americans in the case United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898). This was likely of little comfort to the Chinese immigrant community‚ as the ability for Chinese men to return home and bring back their wives had been essentially eliminated. In 1902‚ the ten-year ban was extended again‚ this time to include US territories of Hawaii and the Philippines.   Effects of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 Immigrants at the Angel Island Immigration Station‚ which opened in 1910 to process minimal immigration from Asia and the Pacific. Source: Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation   Unfortunately‚ the Chinese Exclusion Act only emboldened those who already held animosity toward Chinese immigrants. The 1880s saw violence inflicted on Chinese immigrants and workers in the West‚ including Wyoming and Oregon. In China‚ the government saw the 1902 Geary Act extension of the ban as a humiliation and organized a short-lived anti-American boycott‚ which fizzled after diplomatic pressure from US President Theodore Roosevelt. Economically‚ the ban on imported Chinese labor backfired and led to reduced labor wages across the board‚ largely disproving nativist rhetoric that the Chinese were “stealing jobs.”   The law was highly successful in limiting immigration from China‚ with fewer than 2‚000 additional Chinese residents in the United States recorded in 1890. After World War I‚ numerical limits on immigrants from specific countries were extended to Europe with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924. This act banned immigration from other Asian nations as well‚ including Japan. This new law heightened political tensions between the US and Japan and was intended to further prevent “un-American” immigrants from threatening traditional American values. In the aftermath of post-World War I radicalism‚ especially the Communist Revolution in Russia‚ many Americans felt an increased suspicion of immigration.   World War II: Overturning the Chinese Immigration Act A World War II poster praising China’s struggle against Japan as one of the Allied Powers. Source: University of North Texas (UNT).   When the United States joined World War II after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor‚ it officially became one of the Allied Powers. In Asia‚ this meant an alliance with China‚ which had been at war with Japan since the 1930s. Politically‚ having a ban on Chinese immigration was problematic when being allied with China against Japan. Thus‚ the Chinese Exclusion Act and its later revisions were abolished in 1943. However‚ open immigration was not allowed: a quota of only 105 annual immigrants was allowed. Immediately after the Allied victory in World War II‚ civil war returned to China as the Communists and Nationalists resumed fighting for control.   Immigration from China to the United States almost ceased after the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949‚ as Communist China banned emigration (leaving the country). Beginning in the 1980s‚ after the re-establishment of normal diplomatic relations between the United States and China in 1979‚ Chinese immigration returned to the US. By 2016‚ approximately 2 million Chinese immigrants resided in the United States. Between 2010 and 2017‚ immigration from China has increased roughly 30 percent.   Aftermath of the Chinese Exclusion Act A modern-day protest against US immigration policies. Source: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace   In 1965‚ a new Immigration and Nationality Act removed the quota system used since the 1920s. It allowed for the rapid expansion of immigration from Latin America‚ Asia‚ and Africa‚ three locations that had been heavily discriminated against in prior immigration laws. The new Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 prioritized immigration based on skill and family relations with US residents. This allowed many family members of prior Chinese immigrants – who had been excluded since 1882 – to apply for visas. Since the law took effect in 1968‚ the Asian and Asian-American ratio of America’s demographics has increased substantially‚ increasing the country’s diversity.   However‚ nativism remains a recurring political theme in the United States despite the overall liberalization of immigration policies since the 1880s. Although today largely aimed at Latin American immigrants‚ age-old rhetoric that “cheap labor” from foreign countries threatens to “steal American jobs” remains common. Some have argued that a new wave of far-right conservatism in the United States has sparked a new era of nativism‚ including the call to build a wall on the US border with Mexico. Immigration from Latin America remains a hot-button political topic‚ and questions about “securing the border” will remain pertinent for several election cycles to come.

  The Second World War featured a variety of heroes‚ with millions of soldiers fighting to defeat the Axis Powers. But heroism wasn’t limited to the front lines. There were some people who made a huge difference without firing a single bullet‚ and Alan Turing is a good example.   This ingenious mathematician made a vital contribution to the war by cracking a German cipher device known as the Enigma machine. He accomplished this feat by mechanizing intelligence‚ which in turn laid the foundation for the future of computer technology.   Alan Turing’s Time at Boarding School A photograph of Alan Turing aged fifteen at Sherborne School‚ c. 1927. Source: BBC   Alan Turing was born on June 23‚ 1912 in Paddington‚ London. As a child‚ he was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School in Sussex before moving to Sherborne School in Dorset at the age of thirteen.   Turing struggled to adapt to boarding school at first. He was a clumsy child‚ frequently making a mess with fountain pens and letting down his teammates during gym lessons. His appearance wasn’t ideal‚ either. With forward-falling hair and a scruffy approach to school uniform‚ Turing found himself being mocked by the other boys. This did nothing to improve his shy and hesitant personality.   However‚ even as a youngster‚ Turing demonstrated a knack for mathematics. He managed to solve complex problems without studying elementary calculus. He also tackled subjects like relativity on his own‚ moving beyond the official syllabus with the help of books like The Nature of the Physical World (1928) by Arthur Eddington.   Though Turing was not a popular pupil‚ he did become friends with a boy named Christopher Morcom. The boys bonded over their love of science‚ and they would devise mathematical problems for each other and try to solve them. Morcom was the more practical of the two friends. As well as being a piano player‚ he showed Turing how to make a wireless receiver using basic materials.   But this friendship ended in tragedy when Morcom died of tuberculous peritonitis on February 13‚ 1930 at a nursing home in London. Though he had lived with the disease for many years‚ Morcom never told Turing about his condition.   The University Years A photograph of the King’s College Boating Team (Alan Turing is the second from the left on the back row)‚ 1935. Source: Hear The Boat Sing   Alan Turing studied mathematics at King’s College‚ Cambridge‚ from 1931 to 1934‚ gaining a degree with first-class honors. The transition to Cambridge wasn’t difficult for Turing. The architecture wasn’t dissimilar to Sherborne‚ and most other undergraduates also came from prestigious public schools.   Most importantly‚ Turing was now at the center of the scientific world. The Cambridge course put a particular emphasis on the interface between mathematics and physics. In addition to the aforementioned Arthur Eddington‚ other mathematicians like Paul A.M. Dirac (who became Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge in 1932) formed a vital part of Turing’s higher education.   By the end of his undergraduate studies‚ Turing had become less subdued and more sociable. He regularly exercised as a member of the Cambridge Boat Club and enjoyed playing Bridge with other students. He was also more open about his homosexuality‚ owning plenty of magazines with an emphasis on the male sex appeal.   After gaining his master’s degree‚ Turing wrote an influential paper called “On Computable Numbers‚ with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem.” The paper demonstrated how a Turing Machine (a hypothetical machine developed by Turing) could perform computations and store data.   Turing continued his education at the University of Princeton in New Jersey. His doctoral thesis discussed a system that could formalize mathematical proofs and check them mechanically. After gaining his PhD in 1938‚ Turing returned to the United Kingdom.   The Enigma Machine A modern photograph of the enigma machine. Source: National Museum of Computing‚ Bletchley   During Alan Turing’s university years‚ the Nazis came to power and imposed their ideology on German society. Driven by far-right‚ racist principles‚ the Nazis turned Germany into an anti-democratic‚ totalitarian state. They imposed anti-Semitic laws‚ brainwashed the younger generation‚ and suppressed their political opponents.   In September 1939‚ Germany invaded Poland and started the Second World War. During the conflict‚ the Germans used a device called the Enigma machine‚ which was invented by Arthur Scherbius shortly after World War I. The Enigma machine resembled a typewriter; it used a series of rotors to scramble plaintext messages into incoherent ciphers.   Given there were 159 quintillion combinations (and these settings changed once every twenty-four hours)‚ the Germans thought Enigma was uncrackable. But they were wrong. It was crackable‚ and the British had the perfect man for the job.   Bletchley Park &; the Polish Influence A modern photograph of Bletchley Park. Source: The Times   In 1938‚ the British Secret Intelligence Service acquired Bletchley Park‚ a large house in the English county of Buckinghamshire. Throughout the Second World War‚ a group of codebreakers known as the Government Code and Cypher School worked at Bletchley Park.   Extra staff were recruited to increase the size of the team‚ including twenty-four academics from Cambridge University. Alan Turing‚ along with the other recruits‚ underwent a training course to learn about coding. To begin with‚ there were only a couple hundred people at Bletchley Park‚ but the number grew throughout the war‚ peaking at approximately 10‚000. More and more buildings had to be built to accommodate this increase.   The British were not the first to tackle the Enigma code. Polish mathematician Marian Rejewski – part of the Cipher Bureau of the Polish Defense Ministry – made significant progress in the 1930s. His work became the foundation for the operations carried out by the codebreakers at Bletchley Park.   Cracking the Code  A photograph of Gordon Welchman‚ date unknown. Source: Evening Standard   With the help of many other mathematicians like Hugh O’Donel Alexander‚ Gordon Welchman‚ and Joan Clarke‚ Alan Turing developed a machine known as the bombe.   The bombe was inspired by a similar machine designed by the Polish called the bomba. Turing’s device‚ in simple terms‚ was a bank of thirty-six Enigma machines that moved synchronously‚ using rotors and a plugboard to decipher the encrypted messages. However‚ the defect of Turing’s original design was that it depended on the identification of closed loops. Welchman (one of the aforementioned mathematicians) addressed this issue by introducing a diagonal board. This reduced the number of times the bombe stopped for a solution that was not valid.   The Turing-Welchman bombe became a key part of the war effort. The staff at Bletchley Park decoded the German messages‚ gaining vital intelligence. In 1941‚ for example‚ they located the German battleship Bismark‚ and in 1944‚ the intelligence they obtained helped the Allies prepare for the German defenses during the Normandy landings.   A photograph of Alan Turing‚ 1951. Source: Royal British Legion   But there was a problem. The Allies didn’t want the Germans to know they had cracked the code. If the Germans discovered the truth‚ they would stop using the Enigma machine‚ depriving the Allies of their secret advantage. In other words‚ the Allies couldn’t respond to every piece of decrypted code. They had to be cautious‚ selecting when to make a move and when not to.   In 1942‚ Turing developed another codebreaking technique called Turingery. This became the blueprint for cracking a more complex cipher device known as the Lorenz machine. English mathematician W. T. Tutte – who also worked at Bletchley Park – managed to figure out the architecture of the Lorenz machine‚ helping the Allies read messages from the German High Command.   It’s impossible to calculate the exact influence of the codebreakers at Bletchley Park. But historians believe they shortened the war by two to four years and saved millions of lives.   The Final Years A photograph of the pilot model of the ACE computer‚ 1950. Source: National Geographic   By the end of 1945‚ Alan Turing had developed a plan for a general-purpose computer. It was known as the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). However‚ delays in the construction of the machine frustrated Turing‚ prompting him to leave the National Physical Laboratory in 1948.   Turing became obsessed with the concept of machines thinking like humans. He explored this theme in essays like “Intelligent Machinery” (1948) and “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950). Turing wondered whether it would be possible for a machine to act in such a way that it could fool someone into thinking they were communicating with a fellow human‚ not a computer. Nowadays‚ this is referred to as the Turing Test.   In 1952‚ while working at the University of Manchester‚ Turing was arrested for having a relationship with a nineteen-year-old male student (homosexuality in Britain was illegal at this time). Turing pleaded guilty to the charge of public indecency. He then had to choose between prison and chemical castration‚ ultimately opting for the latter.   On the 7th of June 1954‚ Turing committed suicide by eating an apple containing cyanide. He was forty-two years old.   Alan Turing’s Legacy A photograph of Alan Turing‚ 1951. Source: The New York Times   Alan Turing was ahead of his time. By mechanizing intelligence‚ he cemented his place in history as an integral figure in the field of computer science.   As a gay man convicted of public indecency‚ Turing is also a tragic example of the persecution of homosexuals throughout history. It wasn’t until 1967 that the British Parliament made homosexuality legal with the Sexual Offences Act. In 2013‚ Turing received a posthumous royal pardon for his mistreatment.   In addition to the awards Turing received during his lifetime (which included being made an Officer of the British Empire)‚ the Bank of England honored the great mathematician by adding his face to the new fifty-pound note in 2021.   This‚ in conjunction with the 2014 film The Imitation Game‚ has led to a renewed interest in Turing’s story‚ especially in Britain. He is no longer an obscure mathematician known only to those passionate about computer science. Rather‚ Turing now stands alongside the other great heroes of the Second World War.

  The history of the British monarchy is varied and unpredictable. Noble leaders and brave warriors sit alongside incompetent fools and self-centered tyrants.   As the centuries have passed and the influence of royalty has declined‚ it has become harder and harder to judge each new monarch. But there is one king in recent history who – despite being a constitutional monarch – managed to alienate large swathes of the British public and damage his family’s reputation.   His name was King Edward VIII‚ and he left such a terrible legacy that even the most skilled debaters would struggle to defend his behavior.   Edward VIII &; The Royal Navy A photograph of Edward VIII (the child furthest to the right) with his siblings‚ 1902. Source: Royal Collection Trust   The boy who would become Edward VIII was born on June 23‚ 1894 during the closing years of Queen Victoria’s reign. As the firstborn son of Prince George (who would become King of the United Kingdom in 1910)‚ he was destined to inherit the throne when his father died.   Edward spent much of his childhood living in luxurious royal residences like York Cottage‚ Frogmore House‚ and Balmoral. Quick‚ bright‚ and anxious to please‚ Edward was an inquisitive child who benefited from an upper-class education‚ which included several private tutors.   Given Edward would be king one day‚ the family wanted him to be a virtuous individual‚ and they believed the Royal Navy was the ideal place for him. They hoped he would grow into a sober‚ self-disciplined‚ and punctual young man. So‚ in May 1907‚ Edward arrived at Naval College at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.   A photograph of Edward VIII and his father arriving at Osborne House‚ c. 1909. Source: Royal Collection Trust   Edward struggled to adapt to boarding school. He shared a dormitory with thirty other boys and had to follow a strict schedule. He also experienced mild bullying‚ though he did become more accepted as time went on. After Osborne‚ Edward moved on to the Naval College in Dartmouth.   During this time‚ King Edward VII died‚ marking the start of King George V’s reign. The young Prince Edward was now one step away from the throne. He started to take an interest in current affairs‚ reading newspapers like the Morning Post and the Westminster Gazette.   The Dartmouth course ended with a training cruise‚ but Edward was unable to participate‚ for the voyage clashed with his father’s coronation. Instead‚ he went on a three-month tour on a battleship named HMS Hindustan‚ sailing along the south coast to Portland‚ Torbay‚ and Queensferry.   Edward VIII’s Women: Marguerite‚ Freda‚ &; Thelma A photograph of Marguerite Alibert‚ c. 1915. Source: Tatler   When the First World War began in July 1914‚ Edward was keen to fight. But Lord Kitchener‚ the Secretary of State for War‚ had other ideas. The British could not risk Edward being captured or killed by the Germans. As the first in line to the throne‚ he was simply too valuable.   Instead‚ Edward contributed to the conflict by working as a member of staff and visiting the front lines. In June 1916‚ for instance‚ he visited the trenches in Ypres‚ Belgium‚ spending time with the British troops.   However‚ Edward’s romantic affair with a woman named Marguerite Alibert overshadowed his other wartime practices. Marguerite‚ a French prostitute known for her beautiful appearance‚ met the prince in April 1917 in Paris. The two of them engaged in a sexual relationship that lasted until the end of the war.   This romantic encounter wasn’t the only time Edward misbehaved. During the 1920s‚ he had a secret long-term affair with Freda Dudley Ward‚ who was married to the politician William Dudley Ward. When this affair came to an end‚ Edward moved on to Lady Thelma Furness‚ who was married to Marmaduke Furness‚ a wealthy shipping magnate.   Wallis Simpson A photograph of Wallis Simpson‚ 1937. Source: The Standard   The king was saddened by his son’s behavior. He told Edward the affairs would damage his popularity and tried to persuade him to settle down. In fairness to Edward‚ he did follow his father’s advice‚ for he found a woman he wanted to marry: Wallis Simpson.   Wallis was an American socialite and –  rather controversially – a divorc&;eacute;e. She had divorced her first husband back in 1927 and was still married to her second husband when she struck up a close relationship with Edward.   After leaving (but not officially divorcing) her second husband in July 1934‚ Wallis spent the next few months in Edward’s company at a resort in Biarritz‚ France. Together‚ they talked‚ ate‚ and sunbathed beside the French coastline.   Meanwhile‚ Edward’s father was nearing the end of his reign. Years of smoking had taken a toll on the king‚ and his health was in decline. On January 20‚ 1936‚ George breathed his last‚ and Edward – now no longer a prince –  officially became King Edward VIII.   The Abdication Crisis A photograph of Edward VIII on the day of his abdication speech‚ 1936. Source: BBC   There were problems from the outset. The day after his father died‚ Edward went against royal customs by watching (rather than participating in) the proclamation of his own accession.   He then neglected royal tradition once again when he decided not to go to Windsor Castle for Easter‚ opting instead to entertain his friends at Fort Belvedere. But the biggest problem  – which soon became a constitutional crisis  – was Edward’s desire to marry Wallis.   As a divorc&;eacute;e‚ the American socialite’s past was deemed unacceptable by both the government and the Church of England. When Edward informed Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin of his intention to marry Wallis (who was in the final stages of her second divorce)‚ Baldwin didn’t hold back. He told Edward that the decision was unacceptable for a British monarch. Worse still‚ Baldwin met with Opposition leaders‚ informing them he would shut down the government if Edward married Wallis. The Opposition leaders agreed‚ assuring the Prime Minister they would also refuse to form a government if the king married a divorc&;eacute;e.   A photograph of Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson‚ 1939. Source: The Times   Placing love above duty‚ Edward officially abdicated on December 10‚ 1936. The following day‚ he made a radio broadcast‚ informing the public of his decision. This live resignation speech is considered one of the most significant moments in modern British history.   Edward’s younger brother‚ who was now King George VI‚ took up the mantle instead. He proved to be much more popular than Edward‚ leading Britain through the Second World War alongside Prime Minister Winston Churchill. His eldest daughter Elizabeth would go on to be Britain’s longest-reigning monarch‚ reigning from 1952 to 2022.   Edward VIII &; The Nazis A photograph of Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson with Adolf Hitler‚ 1937. Source: Vanity Fair   True to his word‚ Edward married Wallis six months after his abdication‚ tying the knot at the Ch&;acirc;teau de Cand&;eacute; in Monts‚ France.   Though the battle between love and duty had reached its conclusion‚ Edward tarnished his reputation still further by visiting the Nazis. With Wallis at his side‚ the former king arrived in Germany in October 1937. As well as performing the Nazi salute and shaking hands with Adolf Hitler‚ he toured industrial facilities and even found time to visit a concentration camp.   It’s hard to know exactly what Edward’s motivations were or how much he genuinely supported the Nazis. But his actions during the Second World War certainly suggest he sympathized with their views.   In recent years‚ the historian Andrew Lownie‚ the author of Traitor King (2021)‚ revealed Edward wrote several reports on the French Army while living in Paris in 1940. He then passed these reports to a Nazi informer called Charles Bedaux. When the Nazis invaded France‚ Edward and Wallis fled to Lisbon‚ Portugal‚ where they socialized with German agents and sympathizers.   A photograph of George VI and his wife Elizabeth at Buckingham Palace in the wake of the bombing‚ 1940. Source: The Guardian   Yet perhaps the most shocking revelation discussed by Lownie comes from a cable sent to Berlin by the German ambassador in Lisbon. The message reveals that Edward supported the bombing of his home country‚ hoping this would force Britain to seek a diplomatic solution to the conflict.   Buckingham Palace was then bombed by the Luftwaffe (the German Air Force) on September 13‚ 1940. George VI and his wife were both at the palace at the time but managed to survive the bombing.   While it would be wrong to blame Edward for this event‚ the fact he advocated bombing his own country shortly before the palace was attacked was yet another incident that damaged his reputation.   Edward VIII’s Legacy A photograph of Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson‚ 1949. Source: Daily Mail   Given the long list of controversies associated with Edward‚ it’s easy to understand why his reputation is so poor.   His relationship with Wallis Simpson and the crisis that followed remains one of the most talked-about events in modern British history.   Edward’s life outside his reign was even more damaging to his reputation. His association with the Nazis is the most obvious example of his bad judgment‚ but his younger years were also marred by what was seen as poor decision-making. Indeed‚ the many love affairs he engaged in as a young prince were deemed unacceptable for a future king.   But where does Edward stand when compared to other British monarchs&;#63; Would it be fair to consider him the worst in British history&;#63; Some people would certainly say that he was. But it’s important to remember there have been plenty of other subpar monarchs over the years.   From the gluttony of King Henry VIII and King George IV to the incompetency of King Stephen and King John‚ there is no shortage of bad monarchs to choose from‚ and historians will always debate who was the worst of the worst.   Though there is no objectively correct answer to this debate‚ King Edward VIII will always be part of the conversation.